Magnesium Grains Research Articles

Suppressing interfacial reactions and burn-on defects in sand casted 13Cr9Mo1VNb steel castings. Part I: a novel MgO-chromite hybrid material

Addressing the significant issues of sand burn-on defects and interfacial reaction in sand casted 13Cr9Mo1VNb steel castings, which notably compromise the quality of the steel castings, remains a persistent challenge. The interfacial behaviors between the novel mixed sands and the steel grade were investigated under various sands. The sintering behavior of the sands was also studied without liquid steel at various holding time. In the absence of the influence of molten steel, sintering of mixed chromite-MgO does not undergo solid-solid reaction, with no detected presence of liquid phase and 2MgO·SiO2. The mixed sands undergo sintering reactions upon contact with molten steel, yet no liquid phase is detected. This is primarily attributed to the chemical reaction between MgO and the liquid phase, resulting in the formation of forsterite, leading to the near-complete liquid phase consumption. Magnesia grains can suppress the liquid phase sintering of chromite by 13Cr9Mo1VNb, thus weakening its sintering performance. The presence of 2MgO·SiO2, which exhibits excellent resistance to slag (liquid phase) and steel liquid corrosion, impedes the rising of the liquid phase. Consequently, this reduces the thickness of the adhesive layer and suppresses metal penetration. The production of 2MgO·SiO2 diminishes with the escalation of MgO addition, which increases adhesive thickness and metal penetration as the magnesia content rises. Within the scope of this study, the incorporation of 20 % MgO is suggested to mitigate burn-on defects, which may represent an advantageous selection.

Study of Tensile and Compressive Behavior of ECO-Mg97Gd2Zn1 Alloys Containing Long-Period Stacking Ordered Phase with Lamellar Structure

A suitable heat treatment in the Mg97Gd2Zn1 (at.%) alloy in the as-cast condition results, after extrusion at high temperature, in a two-phase lamellar microstructure consisting of magnesium grains with thin lamellar shape precipitates and long fibers of the 14H-Long-Period Stacking Ordered (LPSO) phase elongated in the extrusion direction. The magnesium matrix is not fully recrystallized and highly oriented coarse non-dynamically recrystallized (non-DRXed) grains (17% volume fraction) elongated along the extrusion direction remain in the material. The deformation mechanisms of the extruded alloy have been studied measuring the evolution of the internal strains during in situ tension and compression tests using synchrotron diffraction radiation. The data demonstrate that the macroscopic yield stress is governed by the activation of the basal slip system in the randomly oriented equiaxed dynamic recrystallized (DRXed) grains. Non-DRXed grains, due to their strong texture, are favored oriented for the activation of tensile twinning. However, the presence of lamellar-shape precipitates strongly delays the propagation of lenticular thin twins through these highly oriented grains and they have no effect on the onset of the plastic deformation. Therefore, the tension–compression asymmetry is low since the plasticity mechanism is independent of the stress mode.

Extrusion weld seam and mechanical properties of high-strength Mg-Gd-Y-Zn-Mn alloy hollow profile fabricated via porthole die extrusion

A high-strength Mg-8.8Gd-3.8Y-1.0Zn-0.7Mn (wt%) alloy hollow profile with complex cross-section was successfully fabricated through porthole die extrusion, and its weld seam was analyzed for microstructure and element distribution to investigate the impact of solid-state bonding. The weld seam displayed a homogeneous magnesium grain structure and a precipitation-free zone. The diffusion behavior of alloying elements during solid-state bonding significantly affected the microstructure of the weld seam, with Gd and Y atoms diffusing towards the outside of the weld region. The hollow profile exhibited favorable mechanical properties, with an ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of 470 MPa, a tensile yield strength (TYS) of 309 MPa, and an elongation (EL) of 7.4%, and showed a minor negative effect from the weld seam.

The effect of temperature on load partitioning evolution in magnesium metal matrix composite reinforced with Ti particles using in-situ synchrotron radiation diffraction experiments

The load partitioning between the magnesium and titanium phases in an extruded Mg-15%Ti (vol.%) composite from room temperature up to 300 °C using synchrotron radiation diffraction during in-situ compression tests. During compression, the magnesium matrix composite deforms mainly by the activation of the extension twinning system up to 200 °C. The volume fraction of twins increases with the plastic strain but decrease with the compression temperature. Hard titanium particles bear an additional load transferred by the soft magnesium matrix from room temperature up to 300 °C. This effect is amplified after yield stress during plastic deformation. Additionally, twins within magnesium grains behaves as an additional reinforcement at low temperature (below 200 °C) inducing an increase in the work hardening of the composite.

Corrosion behaviour of MgO-based refractories by different existence states of manganese-containing volatile phases

Medium/high manganese steel is great interest because of its excellent energy absorption and strength. Further, it has emerged as a potential advanced high-strength steel in automobiles. In this study, the corrosion behaviour of MgO-based refractories by different existence states of manganese-containing volatile phases was systematically investigated via laboratory experiments of the vacuum treatment of medium/high manganese steel. The dissection of a magnesia crucible indicated that the manganese-containing volatile phases exist in three states: manganese vapour, liquid manganese and manganese oxides. The corrosion mechanism models of the MgO-based refractories were established as follows: (1) For the manganese vapour, the periclase was dissociated into the fine blocks when the magnesia-carbon brick was continuously exposed to the manganese vapour. (2) For the liquid manganese, a MnO layer was detected near the manganese metal, which was resulted from the MgO oxidation, and a further reaction took place to form a MnO·MgO solid solution layer at elevated temperatures, which led to the poor binding ability of the MgO crucibles. (3) For the manganese oxides, the Al2O3 crucibles were preferentially corroded by the molten manganese oxides, which are attributed to the superior thermodynamic driving force for the formation of MnAlO4. Moreover, a reaction layer composed of a MnO·MgO solid solution and a low-melting-point silicic acid phase was formed at the interface between the manganese oxides and the magnesia-carbon brick along the decarburized infiltrated zone. In addition, the molten manganese oxides infiltrated along the periclase grain boundaries into the magnesia-carbon brick and to form a reactive metamorphic layer. Consequently, under the attack of physical and chemical corrosion, the refractory particles were loosened and dropped into the corrosive manganese oxides, causing the irreversible damage of the refractory. This work provides a strong theoretical basis for the qualitative evaluating damage of MgO-based refractories by manganese-containing volatile phases.

Formation Mechanism of Thicker Intermetallic Compounds in Friction Stir Weld Joints of Dissimilar AA2024/AZ31B Alloys

The hybrid structures of AA2024 aluminum alloy and AZ31B magnesium alloy have the advantages of being lightweight, having high specific strength, etc., which are of great application potentials in the aerospace industry. It is a key problem to realize the high-quality welding of these two dissimilar alloys. In this study, the friction stir welding (FSW) tests of AA2024 aluminum alloy and AZ31B magnesium alloy plates of thickness 3 mm were carried out. The intermetallic compounds (IMCs) at the bonding interface were characterized by scanning electron microscope, electron probe, and transmission electron microscope. It was found that the IMCs at the bonding interface in weld nugget zones of dissimilar AA2024/AZ31B FSW has a double-layer structure and a much larger thickness. During the welding process of AA2024/AZ31B, when the boundary of magnesium grains bulges and nucleates, the aluminum atoms diffuse into the magnesium grains, and the γ phase (Al12Mg17) nucleates at the bonding interface. The β phase (Al3Mg2) then precipitates at the grain boundary of the γ phase and preferentially grows into γ phase grains. The continuous grain growth to the aluminum side makes the copper contained in AA2024 aluminum alloy concentrate on the side of β phase, which reduces the nucleation work of recrystallization and phase transformation, and further promotes the nucleation and growth of IMCs grains. This is the main reason for the thicker IMCs in the FSW weld of dissimilar AA2024/AZ31B alloys.

A Common Diffusional Mechanism for Creep and Grain Growth in Polymineralic Rocks: Experiments

AbstractWe conducted uniaxial compression and grain growth experiments on fine‐grained forsterite (Mg2SiO4) + 10 vol% periclase (MgO) aggregates. This aggregate is a unique polymineralic system in which all of the constituent elements in the secondary phase constitute the primary mineral phase, except for Si, which is the slowest diffusing species in the primary phase. Grain growth in polymineralic aggregates, where the presence of a secondary phase results in grain boundary pinning of the primary phase, proceeds via Ostwald ripening of the secondary phase. Grain growth and diffusion creep rates were analyzed, and both rates were found to be limited by the same grain‐boundary diffusivity. For periclase ripening, forsterite grains surrounding the periclase grains must be deformed, such that diffusion of Si as well as Mg and O is necessary for periclase ripening, similarly to diffusion creep of the aggregates. Most rocks are polymineralic and usually contain a silicate mineral as their main phase, in which Si is the slowest diffusing species. This leads to the prediction that a single diffusivity, which is Si diffusivity in most cases, determines the rates of grain growth and diffusion creep in much of the Earth's interior. The grain size, which is the result of grain growth, and the time it takes to achieve that size, indicate the diffusivity. Viscosity during diffusion creep is determined by these grain size and diffusivity values. We view these findings as a unique opportunity to estimate the viscosity from the Earth's crust to the lower mantle.

Achieving equiaxed microstructure and isotropic mechanical properties of additively manufactured AZ31 magnesium alloy via ultrasonic frequency pulsed arc

The high cooling rate and thermal gradient in the wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) process often leads to a tendency towards columnar grains or columnar dendrites in magnesium alloys, which can result in anisotropic mechanical properties and are therefore undesirable. To address this challenge, a novel ultrasonic frequency pulsed (UFP) arc used as heat source is applied to alter the conditions in the WAAM process and promote equiaxed growth of magnesium grains. Experimental results indicate that the AZ31 magnesium alloy deposit produced by the UFP-WAAM exhibits full equiaxed-grain microstructure along the building direction. Without any additional treatments, the AZ31 magnesium alloy deposit displays promising mechanical properties, such as isotropic tensile strength and excellent ductility.

Fabrication of a biodegradable and cytocompatible magnesium/nanohydroxyapatite/fluorapatite composite by upward friction stir processing for biomedical applications

Biodegradable magnesium (Mg)-based metal matrix composites are promising candidates for orthopaedic applications since magnesium is an abundant mineral in the human body. To improve the bioactivity and cytocompatibility of these Mg composites, hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (HAP) and fluorapatite (FA) microparticles synthesised by a citrate-derived hydrothermal method were introduced into a Mg matrix.These innovative Mg/HAP/FA composites were produced by multi-pass upward friction stir processing (UFSP). Microstructural observation and Micro-CT reconstruction of the composite revealed that HAP and FA particles are well dispersed in the Mg matrix and the magnesium grain size was significantly reduced after the UFSP process.The in vitro bioactivity behaviour of UFSP processed Mg/HAP/FA composites was investigated in simulated body fluid. The results revealed the formation of a fluoride-rich apatite layer on the composites, which was attributed to the release of fluoride ions from the composite and their precipitation in a different configuration. Moreover, cytocompatibility results revealed that the presence of FA particles, together with HAP nanoparticles, were able to favour osteoblasts-biomaterial interaction.

Effect of Ti addition on the thermal stability of nanocrystalline AZ61 Mg alloy

Nanostructured alloys possess exceptional desirable properties but suffer from low thermal stability, as a consequence of a high content of grain boundaries where the atoms are in non-equilibrium lattice positions. Here nanocrystalline Ti/AZ61 magnesium matrix composite (AZ61Mg-Ti) was annealed isothermally between 573 K and 723 K. Subsequently, the thermal stability was analyzed, taking nanocrystalline AZ61 alloy as the comparative object. After annealing at 723 K for 600 min, the average grain size of AZ61Mg-Ti was approximately 95 nm, much less than that for the annealed AZ61 alloy (~450 nm). And Ti particles with size of ~410 nm and nano scale Ti3Al particles with size of ~ 8 nm were uniformly distributed in magnesium matrix. The kinetics of magnesium grain growth for nanocrystalline AZ61Mg-Ti, was well interpreted by generalized parabolic grain growth model, D8−D08=kt. The activation energy (Eg) for grain growth was calculated to be 134 kJ/mol, being 42 kJ/mol higher than that for pure Mg. For Eg, the contribution rates of drag effect and pinning effect to improve thermal stability were calculated to be 62% and 38%, respectively. Hardness evolution of annealed samples was studied and with raising annealing temperature the downtrend for AZ61Mg-Ti was more gradual than for AZ61 alloy due to the effect of the non-thermal sensitive Ti particles and the restricted Mg grain growth. After annealing treatment at 723 K for 600 min, the hardness was 1.27 GPa, higher than that for the annealed AZ61 (1.13 GPa).

Study on the Strengthening Mechanism of Rare Earth Ce in Magnesium Alloys, Based on First-Principle Calculations and Electronegativity Theory.

Since the commercial applications of rare earth magnesium alloys are increasing gradually, there are considerable advantages to developing lower cost and higher performance magnesium alloys with high abundance rare earth (RE) elements. However, the alloying order of a matrix magnesium alloy is completely changed with the addition of RE elements. Therefore, further study of the strengthening mechanism of Ce element in magnesium alloys is required. In this work, the thermodynamic stability of the possible second phases in a Mg-Al-Mn-Ce multicomponent magnesium alloy were analyzed, based on first-principle calculations, and the precipitation sequence of the key RE phases was deduced as a consequence. Combined with Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), X-ray Diffractometer (XRD), Energy Dispersive Spectrometer (EDS), and other experimental methods, it was investigated whether the preferentially precipitated second phases were the nucleation core of primary α-Mg. The complex alloying problem and strengthening mechanism in a multi-elemental magnesium alloy system were simplified with the aid of electronegativity theory. The results showed that the preferentially precipitated Al11Ce3 and Al10Ce2Mn7 phases could not be the nucleation core of primary α-Mg, and the grain refinement mechanism was such that the second phases at the grain boundary prevented the growth of magnesium grains. Moreover, the tensile test results showed that the reinforced structure, in which the Al-Ce phase was mixed with Mg-Al phase, was beneficial for improving the mechanical properties of magnesium alloys, at both ambient temperature and high temperature.

SINTERING BEHAVIOUR OF MAGNESIUM OXIDE OBTAINED FROM SEAWATER DOPED WITH NANO-TiO2

In order to improve the properties of sintered MgO (80 % precipitation) obtained from seawater, an investigation was carried out with (0, 1, 2) w/% of nano-TiO2 and micro-TiO2 additions during sintering at a temperature of 1500 °C (1 h and 2 h). The effects of the TiO2 addition on its microstructural properties, density, porosity and chemical composition after sintering were observed. The SEM/EDS analysis confirmed the formation of a homogeneous microstructure composed mainly of periclase grains and well-distributed secondary phases. CaTiO3 and MgTiO4 are predominantly located at the inter- and intra-periclase grain boundary surfaces during cooling. The microstructure of the MgO samples with the addition of nano-TiO2 become more compact, having a positive impact on the porosity and density of the samples. The addition of 1 w/% of nTiO2 represents the optimal amount for the improvement of the properties of the MgO samples (80 % precipitation) obtained from seawater.

Effects of strain accumulation and annealing on interfacial microstructure and grain structure (Mg and Al3Mg2 layers) of Al/Cu/Mg multilayered composite fabricated by ARB process

In this research, Al/Cu/Mg multilayered composites were produced by the accumulative roll bonding (ARB) process and then annealed at different temperatures and times. Microstructural studies showed that with increasing temperature and annealing time in the zero cycle samples, the thickness of the intermetallic compounds (Al 3 Mg 2 and Al 12 Mg 17 ) increased. Also, optical microscopy (OM) images displayed that the Al 3 Mg 2 growth rate was higher than Al 12 Mg 17 . The effect of accumulative strain in various annealing conditions on the thickness of the intermetallic compounds is very low. Its effect is more accelerated to the nucleation of the compounds. Plus, the growth mechanism of the intermetallic layer of Al/Mg was determined to be controlled by diffusion and reaction. The activation energy of Al 3 Mg 2 and Al 12 Mg 17 were calculated to be 73 and 143 Kj.mol −1 , respectively. Evaluation of the grain structure of magnesium layers showed that the grains were equiaxed and strain-free for magnesium at zero cycle and different heat treatment conditions. Besides, shear bands formed by the shear strain concentration enhanced the nucleation of magnesium grains around them in the annealing process and diminished the size of magnesium grains compared to the farther regions. Furthermore, the layer of Al 3 Mg 2 intermetallic compound with equiaxed column structure formed after annealing at different temperatures and times as well as various cycles of ARB.

Machine learning to predict aluminum segregation to magnesium grain boundaries

Magnesium alloys are good candidates for a number of applications due to their high strength-to-weight ratio, but other properties like corrosion resistance, formability, and creep are still a concern. In magnesium-aluminum alloys, Mg17Al12 phase precipitates at the grain boundaries (GBs) can have important implications on the mechanical and corrosion behavior. In order to better understand the effects, atomistic segregation of aluminum to GBs must be evaluated first. This study uses atomistic simulations to quantify aluminum segregation energetics for training a machine learning model. Aluminum atoms were iteratively placed at various atomic sites near 30 different 〈0001〉 symmetric tilt grain boundaries (STGBs) in magnesium. The results show how aluminum segregation is affected by GB structure and the local atomic environment. The ability to compute grain boundary physical properties of interest using machine learning techniques can have broad implications for the area of grain boundary science and engineering.

Dolomite-zirconia reaction sintered bonded coarse magnesia ceramics: effect of the bonding proportion

Refractory ceramic materials were manufactured, mainly composed of magnesia grains (coarse and medium fraction) and CaZrO3/MgO as a binding phase produced from the reaction sintering between CaMg(CO3)2 (dolomite) and m-ZrO2 (monoclinic zirconia), which constituted the finer fraction. Different relationships between the proportion and the size of the different aggregates were studied. The microstructure of the materials was characterized in terms of density, crystalline phases, grain phase distribution, and morphology. A combination of X-ray diffraction analysis and scanning electron microscopy with microanalysis was used. The mechanical behavior was determined in terms of the room temperature dynamic Young’s modulus and the 3-point bending modulus of rupture (MOR) at room temperature. All the materials remained with porosities above 30%. The microstructure developed was similar between the sintered materials, characterized with MgO coarse grains bonded by CaZrO3/c-ZrO2 phases, and dispersed irregularly shaped pores. The MOR was directly related to the finer fraction content in the composition, where a higher quantity of finer fraction resulted in a higher MOR.

Microstructural characteristics of refractory magnesia produced from macrocrystalline magnesite in China

Sintered and fused magnesia (FM) produced from the macrocrystalline magnesite in China have attracted attention worldwide for the production of various refractories. Herein, dead burnt magnesia (DBM) with varying compositions was investigated. The results revealed that the periclase crystals of the DBM92 sample were subrounded to rounded euhedral, whereas the periclase crystals of the DBM95 sample were subhedral and idiomorphic. In addition, a significant amount of periclase–periclase bonding with straight boundaries was observed in the DBM97 sample. The periclase crystals of the DBM98 sample with no clear boundaries exhibited the densest packing among the samples. The silicate matrix around the periclase grains of the DBM92 sample contained forsterite and monticellite, whereas that around the periclase grains of the DBM95 sample was mainly composed of monticellite and merwinite. Dicalcium silicate and merwinite were observed in small amounts as interstitial phases in the DBM97 sample. In contrast, only dicalcium silicate, which was concentrated in small triangular pockets, was observed in the densely packed periclase grains of the DBM98 sample. The hot modulus of rupture tests revealed that an alkali-resistant DBM95-based brick can be prepared at a lime–silica ratio of <0.5. The best-quality DBM97-based brick can be prepared at a lime–silica ratio of approximately 2.2, which ensures that dicalcium silicate is the only interstitial phase. The periclase crystals of the two-step FM were significantly larger than those of the one-step FM and exhibited remarkably fewer silicate boundaries. The superior structure and large crystal size of the two-step FM can endow magnesia–carbon bricks with slag corrosion resistance.

Machine Learning to Predict Aluminum Segregation to Magnesium Grain Boundaries

Magnesium alloys are good candidates for a number of applications due to their high strength-to-weight ratio, but other properties like corrosion resistance, formability, and creep are still a concern. In magnesium-aluminum alloys, M17Al12 phase precipitates at the grain boundaries (GBs) can have important implications on the mechanical and corrosion behavior. In order to better understand the effects, atomistic segregation of aluminum to GBs must be evaluated first. This study uses atomistic simulations to quantify aluminum segregation energetics for training a machine learning model. Aluminum atoms were iteratively placed at various atomic sites near 30 different 〈0001〉 symmetric tilt grain boundaries (STGBs) in magnesium. The results show how aluminum segregation is affected by GB structure and the local atomic environment. The ability to compute grain boundary physical properties of interest using machine learning techniques can have broad implications for the area of grain boundary science and engineering.

Ultrasonic Processing of Magnesium Alloy for Property Enhancement

The reduction of harmful greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions can be realized by utilizing lightweight structural metals, such as magnesium. Magnesium alloys have the potential to replace higher-density aluminum and ferrous components in automotive and aerospace industries, thereby decreasing vehicle weight and the associated fuel requirements. However, their strength and ductility must be improved to ensure widespread application. This goal can be achieved through ultrasonic processing in the molten state, a technique that is gaining popularity in the manufacturing of light alloys. In this study, the effects of high-intensity ultrasonic vibration on the microstructure and hardness of AZ91E Mg alloy was investigated. The molten alloys were subjected to sonication of varying durations, and the resulting castings were characterized using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and hardness testing. Sonication was found to successfully increase the hardness of the alloy relative to the base condition. This improvement was attributed to the refinement of the magnesium grain structure as well as the Mg17Al12 and Mn-Al secondary phases in the sonicated alloys. The competitiveness of magnesium alloys can be significantly enhanced via ultrasonic processing, offering important opportunities for the production of greener, light metal components.

Grain size effect on tensile properties and slip systems of pure magnesium

Grain refinement can significantly enhance the strength of metallic materials, but usually at the sacrifice of ductility. Here we report that refinement of magnesium grains can not only improve its strength, but also its ductility, due to the activation of more slip systems. It is found that pure Mg with coarse grain size (d¯=125 μm) has a low ductility and uniform elongation (5.3%), due to the limited basal slip systems. In contrast, fine-grained Mg (d¯=5.5 μm) exhibits enhanced work hardening and ductility as well as uniform elongation (18.3%). Two beam condition TEM analysis revealed that the improved properties were due to the activation of non-basal dislocations, such as <c> and <c + a> dislocations with reducing the grain sizes. It is also found that the <c + a> dislocations are unstable and can dissociate into either <c> and <a> dislocations or I1 stacking faults. Contributions of nano stacking faults on strengthening and ductilization as well as their formation mechanism are rationalized and discussed.

(Invited) Atmospheric Corrosion of Magnesium Alloys: Influence of Aluminium Content

Magnesium has gained considerable interest as a structural material for automotive and aerospace applications due to its low density and high specific strength. The use of magnesium alloys in engineering applications is, however, mainly limited by their unsatisfactory surface properties and their poor corrosion resistance. In recent years, significant improvements have been made in achieving a better corrosion resistance particularly by reducing the contents of impurities such as Fe, Cu, and Ni. Intermetallic phases, a result of the casting process, play an important role in the corrosion process. The role of these intermetallic phases has been addressed in a number of papers [1–3]. The role of aluminum in the atmospheric corrosion of magnesium alloys has less addressed in the literature [4]. Esmaily et al have shown recently that the rate of corrosion of magnesium alloys decreased when increasing the Al content. However these experiments were performed on commercial magnesium alloys produced high pressure die casting under constant RH exposure at 90% RH.In our work the corrosion behavior of binary Mg-Al alloys as well as that of commercial magnesium alloys with different aluminum contents have studied both under cyclic corrosion exposure in the laboratory and in field exposures in France and in Vietnam. Analyses of corrosion products have also been conducted. Additional in-situ measurements have been performed in order to better understand the atmospheric corrosion mechanisms of Mg alloys.An important decrease in the maximum pit depth can be observed after different laboratory exposures when increasing the aluminum content in the material. Similar results have been obtained after 9 months exposure in Field. Hence, from these results it is obvious that an increase of the aluminum concentration in Mg-Al alloys decreased the corrosion rate of the alloy. This lead in lower mass loss and less deep corrosion attacks in the magnesium grains. The analyses of corrosion products formed after the cyclic corrosion tests and field exposures revealed the presence of Magnesium carbonate and MgCO3(OH)4,4H20, respectively. In both cases magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2 was also found in the corrosion products. The results will be discussed in relation with the microstructure of the cast materials. O. Lunder, J.E. Lein, S.M. Hesjevik, T.K. Aune, K. Nisancioglu, Werkstoffe und Korrosion 45 (6) (1994) 331–340. O. Lunder, J.H. Nordlien, K. Nisangliou, Corrosion Reviews 15 (3–4) (1997) 439–469.G. Song, A. Atrens, M. Dargusch, Corrosion Science 41 (1999) 249–273.M. Esmailly, D.B. Blucher, J.E. Svensson, M. Halvarson and LG Johansson, Scripta Materiala, 115 (2016), 91-96