Perfectionistic Expectations Research Articles

Mediating role of social skills in the longitudinal relationship between intrapersonal perfectionism and psychological well-being of preadolescents

Intrapersonal perfectionism is the dispositional tendency to impose perfectionistic expectations on oneself and is considered a bidimensional construct that consists of standards perfectionism and discrepancy perfectionism. Although scholars established the links between standards perfectionism and psychological adjustment and between discrepancy perfectionism and psychopathology, the mechanisms that explain these associations remain relatively unknown. Thus, a better understanding of these mechanisms, especially in children, is warranted given their high prevalence in this developmental population and potential destructiveness on psychological well-being. The present study examined whether social skills with peers mediated the link between the dimensions of interpersonal perfectionism and psychological outcomes due to the salience of social skills acquisition in middle childhood. The study included 225 students (nfemale = 114; nmale = 111) with ages ranging from 7 to 10 years at Time 1 (T1; Mage = 8.55, SD = 1.15) and from 8 to 11 years at Time 2 (T2; Mage = 9.52, SD = 1.10). Participants provided responses on measures concerning standards perfectionism, discrepancy perfectionism, social skills, and psychological well-being at both time points. Longitudinal structural equation modeling indicated that standards perfectionism was positively associated with increases in social skills over time and psychological well-being, whereas discrepancy perfectionism was linked with decreases in social skills over time followed by psychological maladjustment. The study discusses implications for interventions and treatments.

When anything less than perfect isn’t good enough: How parental and supervisor perfectionistic expectations determine fear of failure and employee creativity

In the quest to get the best from those for whom they are responsible, some parents and managers seek or demand perfection. But do such expectations benefit the targets, in terms of their capacity for creativity? The present research examines how perfectionistic parental and supervisor expectations influence employees’ fear of failure and creativity; in particular, the authors propose that perfectionistic parental expectations promote a fear of failure, which undermines employee creativity later in life. In line with social cognitive theory, when perfectionistic supervisor expectations repeat and reinforce these early life experiences, the negative mechanism may be strengthened. Tests of the hypotheses rely on two time-lagged field studies in different cultures (214 U.S. employees, 276 supervisor–employee–parent triads from a Chinese organization) and show that the indirect effect of parents’ perfectionistic expectations on creativity, through fear of failure, is stronger when perfectionistic supervisor expectations are high. This study thus offers unique insights into how familial and work experiences can jointly affect a person’s fear of failure and further creativity at work.

Cognitive-behavioral correlates of pupil control ideology.

Teacher's pupil control ideology is a central feature for the quality of the teacher-student relationship, which, in turn, impacts the teacher's level of well-being. The pupil control ideology refers to a teacher's belief system along a continuum from humanistic to custodial views. Teachers with humanistic orientation view students as responsible and, therefore, they exert a lower degree of control to manage students' classroom behaviors. Teachers with a custodial orientation view students as untrustworthy and, therefore, they exert a higher degree of control to manage students' classroom behaviors. The relationship between pupil control ideology and dysfunctional beliefs originated from the cognitive-behavioral therapy framework has not been investigated, despite existing evidence suggesting that the pupil control ideology is linked to stress and burnout. One hundred fifty-five teachers completed a set of self-report questionnaires measuring: (i) teacher's pupil-control ideology; (ii) perfectionistic and hostile automatic thoughts; (iii) irrational beliefs; (iv) unconditional self-acceptance; (v) early maladaptive schemas; and (vi) dimensions of perfectionism. The result suggests that teachers who adopt a custodial view on pupil control ideology endorse more dysfunctional beliefs than teachers who adopt a humanistic view. They tend to present a higher level of perfectionism, unrelenting standards, and problematic relational beliefs, including schemas of mistrust and entitlement. They also present more often other-directed demands and derogation of other thoughts. Such results picture a dysfunctional view on pupils who misbehave, as adversaries who threaten their rigid and/or perfectionistic expectations.

The Investigation of the Relationship between Narcissism, Perfectionism, Loneliness, Depression, Subjective and Psychological Well-being in a Sample of Transylvanian Hungarian and Romanian Students

"The last decades have witnessed a significant increase in several forms of human psychological malfunctioning, aspects that proved to significantly endanger healthy and efficient human adaptation. Mental health indicators (anxiety, depression, reduced levels of happiness), perfectionism, narcissism, and loneliness have significantly increased, despite the significant improvement of existent life-conditions. The market-based competition and reward system in the educational and professional spheres, as well as the perfectionistic expectations specific to the personal life impose high demands on the individual, which usually become sources of significant chronic stress, further impacting the individual’s quality of life (psychological and subjective well-being, loneliness). The comparative investigation of the above-mentioned variables in Transylvanian Hungarian and Transylvanian Romanian students would offer us the chance to compare these levels of functioning in two, culturally different samples. Our present study is a continuation and refinement of previous studies, and concentrates on the following major aims: (i) the investigation of the possible differences in narcissism, perfectionism, loneliness, depression, happiness, subjective and psychological well-being in Transylvanian Hungarian and Transylva¬nian Romanian first and second year students; (ii) the investigation of the association patterns between variables in both samples, and (iii) the examination of the role the studied variables play on the major indicators of mental and psychological health (depression and happiness) both in the united sample and on the two samples of students separately. The results of our investigation may be beneficial for the tailoring of future prevention and intervention programs that would target the enhancement of psychological adaptation of Transylvanian students Keywords: narcissism, perfectionism, loneliness, depression, subjective well-being, psychological well-being."

Child-oriented and partner-oriented perfectionism explain different aspects of family difficulties.

The aim of the study was to verify the relationship between child-oriented and partner-oriented perfectionism, and their associations with narcissism and with difficulties in the romantic and parental domains. A total of 459 individuals participated, 264 women and 195 men (Mage = 33.88, SD = 4.39). Child-oriented perfectionism and partner-oriented perfectionism were related to each other and positively correlated with narcissism. Partner-oriented perfectionism turned out to be a specific predictor of difficulties in the romantic relations, whereas child-oriented perfectionism was found to be a predictor of difficulties in parental relation. The results suggest that studies on other-oriented perfectionism should take into consideration concrete individuals at whom perfectionistic expectations are directed (e.g. partner and children). This will enable a more precise investigation of the influence of perfectionism on family life and a better understanding of the social consequences of other-oriented perfectionism.

To be or not to be in a couple: Perfectionism as a predictor

The creation and maintenance of a stable and long-lasting relationship are crucial for adult individual well-being, with single people reporting poorer mental health when compared to those engaged in romantic relationships. Among the factors that may predict the quality of romantic dyads, scholars have addressed dyadic perfectionism. However, few is known about which of the perfectionism dimensions better predicts the status of being single or engaged in a romantic relationship. The present study aims to verify whether perfectionism is associated with the relationship status, and which perfectionism dimension is involved. More specifically, the interpersonal aspects of dyadic perfectionism were expected to be positively associated with the probability of belonging to the “single status”. Contributions of demographic variables as well as effects of mental health symptoms were controlled as they are relevant factors influencing romantic relationships. A hierarchical logistic regression analysis was conducted to evaluate the predictive utility of age and gender (controlled for at Step 1), depression and anxiety (entered at Step 2) and intra-and interpersonal perfectionism dimensions (controlled at Step 3) to predict the participants’ relationship status (0 = single, 1 = romantic partner). Results suggested that perfectionism focused on the perceived perfectionistic expectations from the partner is associated with the increased likelihood to be single, a result that confirmed the close association between maladaptive perfectionism and relevant aspects of romantic relationships.

Multidimensional perfectionism and borderline personality organization in emerging adults: A two-wave longitudinal study

Previous research has linked socially prescribed perfectionism (perceiving perfectionistic expectations from others) with personality dysfunction in clinical and nonclinical samples. However, the mechanism by which socially prescribed perfectionism is related to personality dysfunction is largely unknown. This study sought to test the hypothesis that the relation between socially prescribed perfectionism and personality dysfunction (i.e., borderline personality organization) is explained by problems in self-concept clarity and interpersonal functioning. By assessing 217 emerging adults (67.7% female, Mage = 18.70) across two time points, we found that socially prescribed perfectionism was positively associated with borderline personality organization assessed concurrently and longitudinally. Additionally, socially prescribed perfectionism predicted an increase in borderline personality organization over a three-month period, after controlling for baseline levels of borderline personality organization, depressive symptomatology, and suicidal ideation. Bias-corrected bootstrapped tests of mediation revealed that socially prescribed perfectionism exerted a significant indirect effect on borderline personality organization through its associations with interpersonal problems and a lack of self-concept clarity. The present findings shed further light on perfectionism as an important personality construct underlying personality dysfunction.

Sexual Perfectionism and Women’s Sexual Assertiveness: Understanding the Unique Effects of Perfectionistic Expectations about Sex Originating from and Directed toward the Sexual Partner

We investigated how dimensions of sexual perfectionism (i.e., self-directed, partner-directed, partner-prescribed, and socially-prescribed), which reflect expectations to be a perfect sexual partner, related to sexual assertiveness in women. Women (n = 202) in the United States recruited from Amazon Mechanical Turk, who self-reported having previously engaged in sexual activity, served as participants and completed the Multidimensional Sexual Perfectionism Questionnaire and the Sexual Assertiveness Scale. Results revealed that all four dimensions of sexual perfectionism related to lower levels of assertiveness around refusal of unwanted sexual activity and accounted for approximately 19% of its variance. When controlling for shared variance across dimensions of sexual perfectionism, only partner-prescribed sexual perfectionism uniquely related to lower levels of refusal assertiveness. In addition, partner-prescribed sexual perfectionism related to lower levels of assertiveness around initiation of desired sexual activity (i.e., initiation assertiveness) when holding levels of sexual perfectionism on other dimensions constant. In contrast, partner-directed sexual perfectionism related to higher levels of initiation assertiveness when holding constant the other dimensions of sexual perfectionism. We conclude that sexual perfectionism (particularly perceived perfectionistic expectations from sexual partners) appears to be a salient concept in understanding what may hinder women from sexually asserting themselves.

Comparison of Athletes' Proneness to Depressive Symptoms in Individual and Team Sports: Research on Psychological Mediators in Junior Elite Athletes.

Depression among elite athletes is a topic of increasing interest and public awareness. Currently, empirical data on elite athletes’ depressive symptoms are rare. Recent results indicate sport-related mechanisms and effects on depression prevalence in elite athlete samples; specific factors associated with depression include overtraining, injury, and failure in competition. One such effect is that athletes competing in individual sports were found to be more prone to depressive symptoms than athletes competing in team sports. The present study examined this effect by testing three possible, psychological mediators based on theoretical and empirical assumptions: namely, cohesion in team or training groups; perception of perfectionistic expectations from others; and negative attribution after failure. In a cross-sectional study, 199 German junior elite athletes (Mage = 14.96; SD = 1.56) participated and completed questionnaires on perfectionism, cohesion, attribution after failure, and depressive symptoms. Mediation analysis using path analysis with bootstrapping was used for data analysis. As expected, athletes in individual sports showed higher scores in depression than athletes in team sports [t(197) = 2.05; p < 0.05; d = 0.30]. Furthermore, negative attribution after failure was associated with individual sports (β = 0.27; p < 0.001), as well as with the dependent variable depression (β = 0.26; p < 0.01). Mediation hypothesis was supported by a significant indirect effect (β = 0.07; p < 0.05). Negative attribution after failure mediated the relationship between individual sports and depression scores. Neither cohesion nor perfectionism met essential criteria to serve as mediators: cohesion was not elevated in either team or individual sports, and perfectionism was positively related to team sports. The results support the assumption of previous findings on sport-specific mechanisms (here the effect between individual and team sports) contributing to depressive symptoms among elite athletes. Additionally, attribution after failure seems to play an important role in this regard and could be considered in further research and practitioners in the field of sport psychology.

The Emotional and Social Effects of Dyslexia

Dyslexia, is one of the disorders with a greater prevalence among the group of the learning disorders. With the passing years many studies (observations) to explain the causes of dyslexia and to show the newest interventions in this field has been made. People withdyslexia have to overcome quite a few barriersduring theirlivesin order to be able to fulfiltheir dreams and achieve their targets. The fact that some of themare not assessedat an earlyage can affect their self-esteemand theirself-concept. Once theyare assessedresearch has proved that people with dyslexia learnbetter once they aretaught in their preferred learning style(Mortimore, 2003). In dyslexia one of the most commonly missed areas is the emotional side. Teachers and parents are very good at noticing problems with reading, writing, spelling and even maths. They can miss the growing element of lack of motivation, low self-esteem and upset which develops as the child goes through school and the pressures grow greater and greater. The frustration of children with dyslexia often centers on their inability to meet expectations. Their parents and teachers see a bright, enthusiastic child who is not learning to read and write. Time and again, dyslexics and their parents hear, "He's such a bright child; if only he would try harder." Ironically, no one knows exactly how hard the dyslexic is trying. The pain of failing to meet other people's expectations is surpassed only by dyslexics' inability to achieve their goals. This is particularly true of those who develop perfectionistic expectations in order to deal with their anxiety. They grow up believing that it is "terrible" to make a mistake. However, their learning disability, almost by definition means that these children will make many "careless" or "stupid" mistakes. This is extremely frustrating to them, as it makes them feel chronically inadequate. Thisinthe long termcan cause thema lot ofproblems in their personaland social life.

The Emotional and Social Effects of Dyslexia

Dyslexia, is one of the disorders with a greater prevalence among the group of the learning disorders. With the passing years many studies (observations) to explain the causes of dyslexia and to show the newest interventions in this field has been made. People withdyslexia have to overcome quite a few barriersduring theirlivesin order to be able to fulfiltheir dreams and achieve their targets. The fact that some of themare not assessedat an earlyage can affect their self-esteemand theirself-concept. Once theyare assessedresearch has proved that people with dyslexia learnbetter once they aretaught in their preferred learning style(Mortimore, 2003). In dyslexia one of the most commonly missed areas is the emotional side. Teachers and parents are very good at noticing problems with reading, writing, spelling and even maths. They can miss the growing element of lack of motivation, low self-esteem and upset which develops as the child goes through school and the pressures grow greater and greater. The frustration of children with dyslexia often centers on their inability to meet expectations. Their parents and teachers see a bright, enthusiastic child who is not learning to read and write. Time and again, dyslexics and their parents hear, "He's such a bright child; if only he would try harder." Ironically, no one knows exactly how hard the dyslexic is trying. The pain of failing to meet other people's expectations is surpassed only by dyslexics' inability to achieve their goals. This is particularly true of those who develop perfectionistic expectations in order to deal with their anxiety. They grow up believing that it is "terrible" to make a mistake. However, their learning disability, almost by definition means that these children will make many "careless" or "stupid" mistakes. This is extremely frustrating to them, as it makes them feel chronically inadequate. Thisinthe long termcan cause thema lot ofproblems in their personaland social life.

Who Are the Gatekeepers? Predictors of Maternal Gatekeeping

SYNOPSISObjective. The goal of this study was to identify determinants of maternal gatekeeping at the transition to parenthood. Design. Participants included 182 different-gender dual-earner couples. During pregnancy, expectant parents completed questionnaires regarding their psychological functioning, attitudes, and expectations, and at 3 months postpartum questionnaires regarding maternal gatekeeping behavior and gate-closing attitudes. Results. Structural equation modeling analyses revealed that mothers were more likely to close the gate to fathers when mothers held greater perfectionistic expectations for fathers’ parenting, had poorer psychological functioning, perceived their romantic relationship as less stable, and had higher levels of parenting self-efficacy. In contrast, fathers with lower parenting self-efficacy appeared to elicit greater maternal gate-closing behavior. Mothers who engaged in greater gate-opening behavior were more religious. Conclusions. Maternal gatekeeping may be more strongly associated with maternal expectations and psychological functioning than with maternal traditional gender attitudes. Fathers’ characteristics are less predictive of maternal gatekeeping than mothers’ characteristics.

Do you want me to be perfect? Two longitudinal studies on socially prescribed perfectionism, stress and burnout in the workplace

Stress and burnout in the workplace have a negative impact not only on individuals but also on organizations, clients and customers and are estimated to be of high cost to a country's economy. To help identify employees at high risk, it is important to know what individual differences contribute to stress and burnout. Two longitudinal studies were conducted to examine whether individual differences in socially prescribed perfectionism (individuals' perceptions that others have perfectionistic expectations of them) contribute to employees' role stress and predict increases in burnout symptoms (exhaustion, cynicism and inefficacy). Study 1 investigated 69 healthcare service provision employees in the UK over a six-month interval, and Study 2 investigated 195 school teachers in the UK over a three-month interval. In both studies, socially prescribed perfectionism predicted increases in role stress and inefficacy over time. Moreover, in Study 2, socially prescribed perfectionism also predicted increases in exhaustion and cynicism over time. The findings indicate that individual differences in socially prescribed perfectionism may be a contributing factor to stress and burnout in the workplace.

Dyadic perfectionism in romantic relationships: Predicting relationship satisfaction and longterm commitment

Perfectionism affects all areas of life, including romantic relationships. However, little is known about how dyadic perfectionism (perfectionism in dyadic relationships) affects students’ romantic relationships. Focusing on two central aspects of dyadic perfectionism—partner-oriented perfectionism (perfectionistic expectations towards one’s partner) and partner-prescribed perfectionism (perceived perfectionistic expectations from one’s partner)—this study examined partner and actor effects of dyadic perfectionism in 58 university students and their partners (N=116 participants) using multilevel analyses. Results showed significant partner and actor effects. Participants’ partner-oriented perfectionism had a positive effect on their partner’s partner-prescribed perfectionism and a negative effect on their own relationship satisfaction and longterm commitment. Participants’ partner-prescribed perfectionism also had a negative effect on their own relationship satisfaction. The findings show that dyadic perfectionism in students’ romantic relationships puts pressure on the partner and negatively affects the perception of the quality of the relationship regarding satisfaction and longterm commitment.

Perfectionism dimensions, appearance schemas, and body image disturbance in community members and university students

The present study examined the relationship between a self-presentational style involving an extreme need to conceal perceived imperfections from others and body image disturbance (BID). Findings from both a community and a university sample indicated that nondisplay of imperfection (i.e., concerns over behavioral displays of imperfections to others) predicted BID beyond self-imposed perfectionistic expectations and other contributors to BID. Mediational analyses suggested that dysfunctional appearance schemas represent one possible mechanism through which nondisplay of imperfection influences BID. In contrast to earlier work on perfectionism and BID, which emphasized the role of self-imposed perfectionistic expectations, the current study offers a novel view of the connection between perfectionism and BID. That is, rather than striving to achieve perfection, the present study suggests that individuals with BID are characterized by a strong need to avoid appearing imperfect to others.

Cognitions in Compulsive Buying and Acquisition

Compulsive buying is a disabling condition associated with a chronic failure to control the urge to purchase objects. Compulsive buying is closely related to major depression, obsessive–compulsive disorder, and in particular, compulsive hoarding. Like compulsive hoarding, compulsive buying is thought to be influenced by a range of cognitive domains including deficits in decision-making, emotional attachments to objects and erroneous beliefs about possessions, and other maladaptive beliefs. This study examined cognitive factors related to compulsive buying among 189 participants, described by R. O. Frost, G. Steketee, and L. F. Williams (2002), of whom 75 were classified as “compulsive buyers” and 85 as “controls.” Beliefs associated with compulsive buying were assessed with the newly developed 43-item self-report Buying Cognitions Inventory (BCI). Other cognitive styles (i.e., perfectionism) and processing (i.e., decision-making) were also assessed. Overall, this study supported a theoretical model of compulsive buying addressing 5 main domains: (a) depressed mood; (b) compromised self-perceptions and perfectionistic expectations; (c) erroneous beliefs about the nature of objects, potential purchases, and purchasing opportunities; (d) erroneous beliefs about the psychological benefits of buying; and (e) decision-making difficulties.

Relationship Perfectionism, Dysphoria, and Hostile Interpersonal Behaviors

Problematic interpersonal behaviors and their consequences for relationships with others have been implicated in the maintenance and onset of depression. The mechanism leading to aversive social behaviors was examined in this study using a sample of dysphoric and nondysphoric undergraduate female students. Specifically, we examined two questions: (a) Is relationship perfectionism associated with depression?; and (b) Does relationship perfectionism mediate the relation between depression and aversive interpersonal behaviors? Using a self-report measure of relationship perfectionism, results revealed that perfectionistic expectations and standards for relationships were higher for the dysphoric than the nondysphoric, never-depressed women. Moreover, perfectionistic relationship expectations for others, in particular, partially explained the relation between dysphoria and hostile interpersonal behaviors. These findings are discussed in terms of past studies of perfectionism and depression and in terms of current conceptualizations of perfectionism and depressive social behaviors.

Trait and Self-Presentational Dimensions of Perfectionism Among Women with Anorexia Nervosa

Trait and self-presentational dimensions of perfectionism were examined in women with anorexia nervosa (AN), a psychiatric control group of women with mood disorders, and a normal control group of women without mental disorders. With one exception, self-report measures and interview measures indicated that, after controlling for self-esteem, depression, and overall psychiatric severity, compared to women with mood disorders, women with AN were distinguished by substantially higher levels of self-oriented perfectionism (i.e., striving to meet one's own perfectionistic expectations), socially prescribed perfectionism (i.e., striving to meet perceived others' perfectionistic expectations), and nondisclosure of imperfection (i.e., avoiding verbal admissions of one's perceived imperfections). Trait and self-presentational dimensions of perfectionism in women with AN are considered in relation to familial environment and identity disturbance.

Perfectionism and Sexual Satisfaction in Intimate Relationships

This study sought to provide information on the relations between trait perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation and sexual satisfaction in married couples. A sample of 74 married or cohabiting couples were recruited from the community to participate in the study. They completed measures of perfectionism, perfectionistic self-presentation, sexual satisfaction, dyadic adjustment, and depression. The results showed that the interpersonal dimensions of trait perfectionism were negatively related to general sexual satisfaction and sexual satisfaction with the partner for both husbands and wives. After partialing out marital satisfaction and depression, the husband's sexual satisfaction was significantly negatively correlated with his own socially prescribed perfectionism and with his wife's ratings of other-oriented perfectionism. The wife's satisfaction was significantly negatively correlated both with her husband's socially prescribed perfectionism and with her own socially prescribed perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and perfectionistic self-presentation. Regression analyses suggest that the wife's other-oriented perfectionism is a unique predictor of her general lower sexual satisfaction and her husband's lower satisfaction with her contribution to the sexual relationship. Overall, the findings suggest that perfectionistic expectations have an important role to play in sexual satisfaction in married couples.

Perceptions of parenting and depression-proneness in the offspring : Dysfunctional attitudes as a mediating mechanism

This research attempted to clarifythe mechanismthrough which dysfunctional parenting leads todepression in the offspring. Consistent with theorizingbyBeck (1967), we tested a three-stage causal pathway wherein dysfunctional parenting should giverise to dysfunctional attitudes in the offspring which,in turn, should give rise to depression-proneness in theoffspring. Another objective of this study was to further delineate the types of parentingbehaviors that give rise to dysfunctional attitudes inthe offspring. To this end, a large sample of collegestudents (N = 246) completed measures assessing four parenting dimensions (i.e., low care,overprotection, perfectionistic expectations, andcriticalness) as well as measures assessingdysfunctional attitudes, general depression-proneness,and current depression. Support for the depressogenic effects of allfour parenting dimensions was obtained in that eachparenting dimension correlated significantly withdysfunctional attitudes and depression tendencies in the offspring. Moreover, path analyses supportedBeck's three-stage causal model with perfectionistic andcritical parenting playing a particularly prominentrole. Last, after controlling for current depression, the partial correlations among the variables inthe three-stage model remained significant, suggestingthat the present findings were not simply the result ofa mood congruency effect. These findings illuminate additional parenting behaviors that can havedepressogenic effects and indicate that these parentingbehaviors exert their effects, at least in part, by wayof instilling dysfunctional attitudes in the offspring.