Perceptual-motor Training Research Articles

Reported prevalence of evidence-based instructional practices by special educators in the Czech Republic

The reported level of use of eight instructional strategies in a sample of 531 special educators in the Czech Republic was examined in this study. Consistent with recent parallel studies in North America and Australia, the respondents reported that they used a combination of evidence-based instructional practices (such as direct instruction and applied behaviour analysis) and other practices that may be considered unproven or disproved (such as perceptual motor training and modality instruction). The details of the pattern of use of strategies differed from previous parallel studies including relatively high levels of use of perceptual motor programmes, possibly reflecting local historical factors. Overall, the results support the conclusion that commitment to evidence-based instruction has only partially permeated special education practice and provide a baseline for monitoring future change.

The effect of perceptual-motor training on attention in the children with autism spectrum disorders

The present study attempted to investigate the effect of perceptual-motor training on attention in children with autism spectrum disorders. The participants (20 girls and 20 boys) were divided into experimental and control groups. They were selected from among 85 subjects after primary tests to be matched. The design of the study was quasi-experimental including an independent variable, a pretest and a posttest. After considering the research hypotheses using descriptive statistics and one-way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), the results suggested a significant difference in posttest scores of experimental and control groups after independent variable being applied. The results also showed that perceptual-motor trainings for children with autism increase their attention because of the impact they have on increasing neurological and cognitive function.

Commentary on Carter, Stephenson and Strnadová's Reported Prevalence by Australian Special Educators of Evidence-Based Instructional Practices

AbstractIn Volume 35, Issue 1 of the Australasian Journal of Special Education, Carter, Stephenson and Strnadová (2011) replicated a study by Burns and Ysseldyke (2009). In Carter et al.'s study, 194 Australian special educators were asked to rate the extent to which they used eight instructional practices. These practices were applied behaviour analysis, direct instruction, formative evaluation, mnemonic strategies, modality training, perceptual-motor training, psycholinguistic training, and social skills training. The first four of these practices had moderate to high effect sizes (and were regarded by the authors as more desirable techniques), and the final four practices had low effect sizes, on the basis of past meta-analytic research. Carter et al.'s findings were that while the Australian teachers used some desirable strategies relatively frequently, they also used some less desirable practices frequently and so desirable instructional practices should be encouraged at the expense of less effective practices. While these results are of interest, they also have the potential to mislead readers and later sections of the current article examine these potential misconceptions.

Reported Prevalence by Australian Special Educators of Evidence-Based Instructional Practices

AbstractThis research examined the reported level of implementation of eight practices in a national sample of Australian special education teachers, replicating the North American study of Burns and Ysseldyke (2009). The 194 respondents reported extensive use of a number of evidence-based practices, such as direct instruction and applied behaviour analysis. Conversely, a number of practices that have very weak empirical foundations or can be considered disproven, such as perceptual-motor training and modality instruction, continue to be used at moderate-to-high levels. In addition, compared to their North American counterparts, Australian special education teachers used a number of evidence-based practices significantly less frequently and used perceptual-motor programs more frequently. Implications of these results are discussed.

Distance Estimation Training: A Proposed Model of Transfer

Distance estimation is neither universally good nor universally bad. Rather, the level of accuracy generally depends on the task being performed. When misestimation does occur, training protocols have been implemented to improve one's ability to estimate distance. Unfortunately, results are mixed with regards to the effects of distance estimation training on subsequent task performance. Consequently, reliable statements regarding the conditions within which transfer will occur are limited. As a result, the ability to apply these mixed findings to real world situations is hampered. As a solution, a transfer model was created using the Two Visual Systems Hypothesis as a foundation. Interestingly, one area of the model lacks evidence. Specifically, the effects of perceptual-motor recalibration training on subsequent ventrally-guided distance estimation tasks are unclear.

Management of Children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Learning Disabilities: A Survey of Paediatric Occupational Therapists in the United Kingdom

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common complex neuropsychiatric disorder frequently overlapping with learning disabilities (LD) in children with average and above intelligence (Biederman et al 1991). The complex needs of these children could be better addressed in a multidisciplinary context (Foy & Earls 2005) within which paediatric occupational therapists may have a significant role. The aim of this study was to identify the interventions used by occupational therapists in the United Kingdom with these children and explore the rationale for their use. The purpose was to provide baseline data to inform multidisciplinary team approaches for the management of these children. A survey, based on postal questionnaires, was conducted among 100 paediatric occupational therapists in the United Kingdom. The effective rate of response was 42%. Both qualitative and quantitative data were gathered and analysed. The findings suggested that therapists tended to use more than one method/ approach in the rehabilitation of these children. The sensory integration approach and the perceptual-motor training were more popular among therapists. A variety of other approaches, used on an individual needs basis, were reportedly used. Future studies to test the effectiveness of reported practices with children with both ADHD and LD are recommended.

What should we do to help children with DCD

See related article on page 608 In this issue of the journal, an important new contribution to the literature on Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) explores differences in motor imagery ability in three groups – children with attention-deficit–hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), children with DCD, and children with both conditions. This study provides evidence that DCD has a unique neurological basis, calling into question the notion that ADHD and DCD are merely dimensions of a broader syndrome of generalized developmental deficits. The idea that ADHD and DCD share a common cause has its roots in studies demonstrating very high levels of comorbidity between them: in clinical samples of children with one disorder or the other, 30 to 50% typically prove to have both. This has led to approaches like that of Lewis et al., which seek to explore the common ground these conditions share. By failing to take into account comorbidity between these disorders, previous work may have produced erroneous conclusions regarding underlying mechanisms. A case in point is the association between ADHD and abnormal motor overflow or associated movements. It is not clear whether this relationship is due to impaired inhibition related directly to ADHD or to independent coordination problems. Preliminary evidence currently favours the latter.1 The paper by Lewis et al. poses a similar question. As the authors observe, disrupted motor behaviour may arise from a dysfunction in the neurological networks responsible for motor planning and control, as is thought to be the case with DCD, or from deficits in attention and executive functioning associated with ADHD. In other words, the same impaired performance outcome could arise from functional problems in either of two, quite distinct, systems. This understanding would lead then to the conclusion that similarities in certain clinical features of ADHD and DCD are not necessarily indicative of a common neurological dysfunction or etiology. Lewis et al. examined this hypothesis by building on previous work that has established an internal modeling or efference-copy deficit in children with DCD.2 They explored whether deficits in motor imagery, in this case measured using a guided pointing task, were specific to DCD. By comparing performance in groups of children with ADHD alone, DCD alone, and those with comorbid ADHD and DCD, they demonstrated that this particular deficit occurred predominantly in the DCD-only group. The authors concluded that DCD may be associated with disruption to normal function associated with the inferior parietal lobe. While preliminary, these data support the hypothesis of unique neurological bases for DCD and ADHD. Perhaps most importantly, the method used in this study and others (e.g.1) reflects an important paradigm shift in the field. Only by taking into account comorbid ADHD and DCD can we hope to better understand whether these problems share a common etiology. Motor imagery should be of particular interest to researchers and clinicians in DCD because ‘imagined’ movement shares much of the physiological and neurological apparatus of its ‘real’ counterpart. Some have gone so far as to argue that motor imagery is an internal model of actual movement arising in consciousness simply because the actual movement has been inhibited. It is not surprising then, that children with coordination problems exhibit deficits in imagined movements as well as ‘real’ ones. The clinical implications of this work are intriguing. Previous work from members of this same research team has shown that motor imagery training is as effective as more traditional perceptual motor training in facilitating motor skill development in clumsy children. While the authors note the benefits of this approach in relation to ease of application and convenience relative to traditional physical therapy, there may also be psychological benefits. Children with DCD often report low levels of self-efficacy with regard to their physical abilities, and this lack of confidence may be the principal cause of low levels of participation in sports and other physical activities. These negative self-attributions are also likely to have an impact on ‘training’ to improve motor skill development. Children with DCD learn to conceal their problems by avoiding activities that expose their coordination difficulties and this could limit the effectiveness of skill-development-based interventions. Motor imagery, by contrast, is a safe way of developing skills out of public view. In this sense, its benefits may not be limited solely to physical skill development, but may also be conducive to greater psychological and social well-being.

Reported Prevalence of Evidence-Based Instructional Practices in Special Education

The federal mandate for use of evidence-based practice in schools focuses attention on the frequently discussed research-to-practice gap in education. The current study examined the frequency with which evidence-based practices are engaged in the education of pupils with disabilities. In sum, 174 special education teachers and 333 school psychologists completed a 12-item survey in which they rated the frequency of various practices used in special education. Respondents reported that direct instruction is the most frequently used instructional methodology and that perceptual-motor training is the least frequent. However, some practices with little empirical support (e.g., modality instruction) are reportedly used with some frequency, and special education teachers reported using ineffective approaches (social skills training) as frequently as they did those approaches with a strong research base (applied behavior analysis). Thus, these data present some reason for optimism, although special education does not appear to be immune to a research-to-practice gap.

The Application of Cognitive Orientation to Daily Occupational Performance (CO-OP) in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) in Hong Kong: A Pilot Study

Objective Treatment approach for children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) can be divided into: 1) the “bottom-up” approach, which includes sensory integration training, perceptual motor training and process-oriented approach, and 2) the “top-down” approach, which includes a recent new problem-solving approach, i.e. the cognitive orientation to daily occupational performance (CO-OP). This study is to investigate the effectiveness of CO-OP and to improve motor, cognitive and functional performance after treatment in children with DCD in a single-group pilot trial. Methods Six children with DCD were recruited consecutively by convenient sampling at a single time occasion. A treatment programme based on the CO-OP, which consisted of seven weekly sessions, was provided for all children in a closed group format. Motor, cognitive and functional performances were evaluated pre-/post-treatment. Results Significant differences after treatment were found in activity performance in motor planning, motor process, and daily life within the group. Conclusion The results indicated that the CO-OP focused in the cognitive domain helped to improve problem-solving skills and organization of daily chores in everyday life. This pilot study demonstrated the effectiveness of this new approach in clinical application and provided a good piece of preliminary evidence in the local context.

Virtual Environments for Motor Rehabilitation: Review

In this paper, the current "state of the art" for virtual reality (VR) applications in the field of motor rehabilitation is reviewed. The paper begins with a brief overview of available equipment options. Next, a discussion of the scientific rationale for use of VR in motor rehabilitation is provided. Finally, the major portion of the paper describes the various VR systems that have been developed for use with patients, and the results of clinical studies reported to date in the literature. Areas covered include stroke rehabilitation (upper and lower extremity training, spatial and perceptual-motor training), acquired brain injury, Parkinson's disease, orthopedic rehabilitation, balance training, wheelchair mobility and functional activities of daily living training, and the newly developing field of telerehabilitation. Four major findings emerge from these studies: (1) people with disabilities appear capable of motor learning within virtual environments; (2) movements learned by people with disabilities in VR transfer to real world equivalent motor tasks in most cases, and in some cases even generalize to other untrained tasks; (3) in the few studies (n = 5) that have compared motor learning in real versus virtual environments, some advantage for VR training has been found in all cases; and (4) no occurrences of cybersickness in impaired populations have been reported to date in experiments where VR has been used to train motor abilities.

The positive side of special education: minimizing its fads, fancies, and follies

Chapter 1 Preface Chapter 2 Acknowledgments Chapter 3 1. Science: Good, Bad, and Bogus Chapter 4 2. Educating Intelligence: Mind over Matter Chapter 5 3. Heredity, Environment, and the Great Debate about Intelligence Chapter 6 4. Perceptual-Motor Training and the Improvement of Nothing at All Chapter 7 5. Psycholinguistic Training: Faculty Psychology Revisited Chapter 8 6. Treating Autism: Manipulators, Mystics, and Monsters Chapter 9 7. Dyslexia Interventions: Sorcery, Witchcraft, and Legerdemain Chapter 10 8. Ideology and Special Education: Cry Havoc! Chapter 11 9. The End of Special Education? Chapter 12 Epilogue Chapter 13 References Chapter 14 Subject Index Chapter 15 Author Index Chapter 16 About the Authors

Analysis of Kavale and Mattson's "balance beam" study (1983): criteria for selection of articles.

The effects of perceptual motor training in children with learning disabilities have been hotly debated for many years. Proponents have included many of the pioneers in the fields of learning disabilities and motor development. Among the challenges perhaps the most sophisticated one has been the meta-analysis by Kavale and Mattson. Their conclusion was that perceptual motor training was not an effective intervention for children with disabilities. The purpose of this project was to analyze critically the Kavale and Mattson meta-analysis from the perspective of an adapted physical educator and to consider the validity of this meta-analysis when examining multiple interventions dealing with a multitude of disabilities. A critical analysis of all 180 studies question their conclusions.

Training and Educational Approaches to Minimally Invasive Surgery: State of the Art

Current training in minimally invasive surgery (MIS) is inadequate given the demands of patients on practitioners and the number of surgeons and residents who still need to be trained. The training that is provided is neither widespread nor is it standardized, resulting in graduate surgeons with a wide range of competence. There is little guidance in what a training program needs to be effective. We provide a brief review of the state of the art of MIS training with some emphasis given to training methods including perceptual motor training, MIS learning laboratories, virtual reality, evaluation and assessment, cost, simulation fidelity, credentialing, certification, privileging, and ergonomics. We conclude that the state of the art is left wanting. Copyright 2002, Elsevier Science (iJSA). All rights reserved.

Training and educational approaches to minimally invasive surgery: state of the art.

Current training in minimally invasive surgery (MIS) is inadequate given the demands of patients on practitioners and the number of surgeons and residents who still need to be trained. The training that is provided is neither widespread nor is it standardized, resulting in graduate surgeons with a wide range of competence. There is little guidance in what a training program needs to be effective. We provide a brief review of the state of the art of MIS training with some emphasis given to training methods including perceptual motor training, MIS learning laboratories, virtual reality, evaluation and assessment, cost, simulation fidelity, credentialing, certification, privileging, and ergonomics. We conclude that the state of the art is left wanting.

Occupational Therapy for Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Study of the Effectiveness of a Combined Sensory Integration and Perceptual-Motor Intervention

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a problem for a significant proportion of children during school years and may result in more enduring social and emotional problems. Both occupational therapists and physiotherapists provide services for children with DCD. However, there are few studies examining the effectiveness of interventions for this client group. This has resulted in continuing uncertainty over the most effective treatment for this condition. This paper examines past problems with regard to definitions of the disorder, research design and ethical barriers. The results of a pre-test, post-test single-group study of an occupational therapy intervention for DCD are then presented. Outcomes were measured by the Movement ABC and the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (Beery 1982) at one-year follow-up. The results are discussed in relation to the shortcomings of research design used in the study. It is concluded that the intervention, consisting of combined sensory integration and perceptual-motor training, is likely to be ineffective at 12-month follow-up.

The Influence of a Perceptual-Motor Training Activity on the Stability of PC-Based Cognitive Test Scores: A Repeated Measures Paradigm

The authors repeatedly administered four computerized tests to 21 students engaged in a lengthy PC-based flight training simulation as part of their pre-training activities at a professional aviation academy. Test scores were examined for disruption, or evidence of transfer, during intervals in which the tests were expected to correlate with training performance. No significant disruptions were noted for grammatical reasoning, code substitution, or four-choice reaction time. However, the BFITS group experienced significant improvement on one test (air defense maneuvering) during the predicted interval. The effect was not mirrored by either of two control groups (flight instructors and university undergraduates). Implications for performance prediction are discussed.

WE CAN CURE YOUR CHILD'S CLUMSINESS! A REVIEW OF INTERVENTION METHODS

Intervention procedures for treatment of clumsiness have come in many guises. We have looked at some of the most powerful methods put forward in the past 30 years--Perceptual-motor training (PMT), Sensory Integration Therapy (SIT), and some promising new approaches. Both the PMT and the SIT have been heavily criticised. It is hard to find support for the idea that the programmes improve academic skills or that they have more than a limited effect on perceptual-motor development as claimed. The more recently introduced Kinaesthetic training is shown to have an effect on general motor competence but that this may be better explained in terms of the general principles on which this training procedure lies rather than the influence on Kinaesthesis per se. Since other recent studies have also shown a dependence on similar general principles, it might be asked whether it is the teacher rather than the programmes that accounts for the differences shown between different intervention programmes.

Effects of Matching Cognitive and Perceptual-Motor Training to Task Components on Complex Task Performance by Older and Younger Adults

The present study investigated the type of information that should be presented during training in order to maximize the performance of older and younger adults on complex, realistic tasks. This study compares the effects of emphasizing concepts or actions during training on both immediate performance and performance after a one-month delay. Participants completed one of two tutorials for operating a computer-simulated automatic teller machine. One tutorial presented conceptual information at each system state (Concept Training). The other indicated the target object on-screen and required activation of the correct ATM simulator control (Action Training). Participants performed 20 transactions following training and 20 transactions following a one-month retention interval. Older Action trainees showed higher accuracy on perceptual-motor task components than did older Concept trainees. Older Concept trainees showed higher accuracy on cognitive task components than did older Action trainees. Younger adults showed no training group differences. Results suggest that matching type of training to task components may be especially important for older adults and that qualitatively different recommendations may result from testing older and younger adults.

Clinical Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Sensory Integrative and Perceptual Motor Therapy in Improving Sensory Integrative Function in Children with Learning Disabilities

After 72 1-hour therapy sessions for 3 hours per week, significantly more subjects, aged 58 to 107 months, receiving sensory integration therapy ( n=35) and perceptual motor training ( n=35) than those receiving no treatment ( n=33) showed improvement in their sensory integrative functioning. The same effect was found for a subgroup of children exhibiting vestibular dysfunction only. Improvement could include an increase of all test scores defining a child's particular dysfunction into the normal range with associated clinical observations indicating no problem, or a reduction in the severity of a child's dysfunction, the number of their dysfunctional systems, or both severity and dysfunctional systems. The groups did not differ in the incidence of any one of these individual types of improvement, but only in their overall improvement represented by the total of all types. Discussion focused on the type and degree of improvement therapists can expect from treatment and problems associated with evaluating outcome.

Structured program of visual-motor integration (SP-VMI) for preschool children

The objective of this study was to investigate the efficacy of the Structural Program of Visual-Motor Integration (SP-VMI) with preschool disadvantaged and special education (SPED) children. The SP-VMI is based on theoretical perspectives that emphasize developmental principles and needs for mastery of perceptual-motor skills in relation to writing and reading skills (i.e. Gesell 1940; Montessori 1960) and on the Mediated Learning Experience (MLE) theory which stresses mediation of metacognitive strategies and an active-modificational approach (Feuerstein, Rand & Hoffman 1979). A sample of disadvantaged (n = 60) and SPED (n = 30) preschool children were randomly assigned to experimental (n = 45) and control (n = 45). All children were administered perceptual-motor tests and a dynamic test of Complex Figure before and after the intervention. Ratings of the children in various adjustment categories were taken at the end of the program. The SP-VMI was applied in small groups (3–5 children) for four months; during this period the control group received a free-play intervention. The major findings show that the experimental children significantly improved their performance from pre- to post-intervention on (a) perceptual-motor tests, (b) measures of cognitive modifiability, and (c) rated higher on adjustment categories. The improvement on the dynamic test of Complex Figure was significantly higher for the SPED than for the disadvantaged children in the experimental group as compared to the parallel subgroups among control group. The findings, in general, confirm the efficacy of the SP-VMI and support the integration of mediated learning experience processes with perceptual-motor training.