Peatland Degradation Research Articles (Page 1)

Mid-infrared spectroscopy as a potential tool for monitoring the success of tropical peatland restoration.

The peat swamp forest of the Kampar Peninsula in Riau, Indonesia, is one of Southeast Asia’s most critical tropical peatland ecosystems, playing a vital role in carbon storage, hydrological regulation, and biodiversity conservation. However, in the past two decades, this area has undergone severe degradation due to socio-economic activities, particularly land conversion for oil palm and acacia plantations, canal drainage development, and frequent peat fires. This study aims to identify the impacts of these activities on the peatland ecosystem and evaluate the effectiveness of current restoration strategies. A mixed-methods approach was used, including field observations, satellite imagery analysis, in-depth interviews, community surveys, and focus group discussions (FGDs). Findings indicate that peatland degradation has led to significant ecological damage, such as forest cover loss, increased carbon emissions, and disrupted water regulation functions. Additionally, socio-economic impacts include declining household incomes, land tenure conflicts, and greater vulnerability to smoke-related disasters. Restoration efforts, such as rewetting and revegetation, have yet to achieve optimal results due to technical limitations, weak institutional coordination, and insufficient community involvement. The study recommends a holistic, community-based restoration approach supported by integrated policy frameworks to ensure sustainable peatland management in the region.

Peatland ecosystems in Southeast Asia are vital carbon sinks and biodiversity reserves, yet they face persistent threats from unsustainable land-use practices, particularly fire-based land clearing. Indonesia, which holds a significant share of the region’s tropical peatlands, remains a key actor in addressing the environmental and transboundary haze crises stemming from peatland degradation. As a member of ASEAN, Indonesia is bound by regional commitments, including the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution and the ASEAN Second Haze-Free Roadmap (2023–2030), which promotes sustainable peatland management through strategies such as the ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy (APMS). This paper aims to critically assess Indonesia’s peatland management strategies in light of these regional obligations. It evaluates the implementation and enforcement of the Zero Burn Policy, the current state of peatland rehabilitation and preservation efforts, the institutional and legal roles of the Indonesian government, and comparative insights drawn from other ASEAN member states. This research uses a combination normative and empirical juridical research methodology, integrating doctrinal legal analysis with contextual evaluation of implementation practices. Despite regulatory advancements and institutional initiatives, Indonesia continues to face significant challenges, including weak enforcement, persistent land burning, and fragmented governance. The paper concludes that achieving sustainable peatland management and fulfilling ASEAN commitments requires stronger inter-agency coordination, enhanced legal clarity, and deeper regional collaboration rooted in shared environmental governance principles.

Abstract Earth’s largest tropical peatland, first mapped in 2017, is located within an immense wetland in the Congo Basin, the Cuvette Centrale, covering 167 600 km2. Here, for the first time, we estimate spatio-temporal tree cover loss patterns and the resultant carbon emissions in these forested peatlands using Global Forest Change data from 2001–2021. We find tree cover loss affected 1.4% of the peatlands over 20 years (0.07% yr−1), with 89% occurring in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC, 0.06% yr−1) and 11% in the Republic of the Congo (RoC, 0.008% yr−1). Though low, tree cover loss rates in the peatlands have increased 5x in the DRC and 2x in the RoC between the 2000’s and 2010’s, but are a fraction of the contemporary rate of peatland deforestation in Insular Southeast Asia and are 5x–7x lower than total tree cover loss rates in each country, respectively. The increase in the rate of tree cover loss and in the size of patches of tree cover loss over time and the occurrence of losses near access routes (settlements, roads and waterways) suggests increasing anthropogenic causes. Smaller loss patches are likely due to anthropogenic and natural causes. In the DRC, only 19% of patches were >0.1 km2 in the 2000’s; this rose to 81% in the 2010’s. We detected one anomalously large patch of deforestation (75 km2). A ground-truthed analysis of this patch shows that rice cultivation is driving deforestation on seasonally-flooded forest not underlain by peat and areas of peatland forest underlain by shallow peat. This is a previously unidentified threat to peatland degradation in the Cuvette Centrale. Deforested tropical peatlands can result in significant carbon emissions. We estimate that committed emissions are 108 (76.34–131.81) Tg CO2 from peat decomposition and aboveground biomass loss in the DRC between 2001–2021. Overall, tree cover loss, deforestation and carbon emissions are low compared to other regions with large areas of tropical peatlands, with 98.6% of the Cuvette Centrale peatlands being intact when considering tree cover loss. Ground-based studies including participation from residents of peatland-adjacent communities are acutely needed to validate our findings, improve peatland maps and prioritise local people in future management decisions, and prevent future greater losses.

IntroductionErechtites hieracifolia is an invasive plant species increasingly colonizing peatland plant communities in Central Europe. Invasive plant species are a growing global concern, as they colonize a wide range of habitats, contributing to biodiversity loss. Anthropogenic activity and climate change intensify this process. Mires are among the most vulnerable ecosystems, as lowering groundwater levels and habitat changes facilitate the penetration of invasive species. The aim of this study was to analyze the floristic composition of peatland plant communities with the presence of E. hieracifolia, including an assessment of potential differences between plots with and without the species. In addition, changes in population size over a 3-year period were evaluated, and new localities of E. hieracifolia in Poland were identified.MethodsIn 2019, a total of 60 phytosociological relevés were taken in 12 peatland patches (six with the presence of E. hieracifolia and six without it). The study was repeated in 2022 on the same patches. A syntaxonomic classification of the plant communities was established. The PERMANOVA method was used to analyze differences in species composition between patches with and without E. hieracifolia. Biodiversity indices (Shannon–Wiener and Simpson) were also compared between these two groups.ResultsE. hieracifolia most frequently occurred in raised bogs with low groundwater levels within the Sphagno recurvi–Eriophoretum vaginati association. Maximum species cover was recorded in patch 11 (25%). Within 3 years, the number of patches with E. hieracifolia increased from six to eight. In some of these patches, an increase in both the species cover and range was observed, indicating ongoing expansion. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences in species composition between patches with and without the presence of E. hieracifolia. A clear association of the species with patches characterized by a more abundant occurrence of Eriophorum vaginatum tussocks was also observed. The Shannon–Wiener and Simpson diversity indices showed slightly lower species diversity in communities with E. hieracifolia, suggesting that habitat changes associated with peatland drying favor its colonization.Discussion/ConclusionsThe results indicate that E. hieracifolia preferentially colonizes degraded habitats characterized by reduced biodiversity. These findings suggest that E. hieracifolia may act as an indicator of peatland degradation, with its expansion facilitated by hydrological changes. The study highlights the need for continuous monitoring of invasive species in peatland ecosystems, as their spread may further accelerate biodiversity loss in these vulnerable habitats.

Peat moss (Sphagnum) plays a crucial role in extenuating the environmental toxicity by swaying the microbial activity and acting as a natural filter for removing pollutants. The peatlands help in the purification of water by filtering out the contaminants and decomposing organic matter by creating anaerobic conditions that create impacts on microbial communities. Additionally, Sphagnum pays for carbon sequestration that makes a positive impact in the carbon sinks process for peatlands. However, decomposition rates of peat vary based on various factors such as humidity, microbial population, and climate changes. It makes renewable sources of biofuel as it converts biofuels through the process of pyrolysis that make an alternative to fossil fuels. The parameters of pyrolysis, such as rate of nitrogen flow, reaction time, and temperature, enhance biofuel productivity. Moreover, the peatland ecosystem controls carbon cycles that help in reducing greenhouse gases like methane and carbon dioxide. Peat is mainly composed of humic substances that improve the nutrient retention and soil quality, creating importance for agriculture. The interconnection between microbes and Sphagnum aids in the absorption of heavy metals and environmental detoxification. However, degradation of peatlands because of overharvesting and climate changes threatens these benefits. Hence, sustainable management methods are required to maintain the integrity of peatlands while using their ecological importance. This study highlights the importance of Sphagnum and its microbial connection in removing pollutants, biofuel production, and carbon sequestration.

Abstract Background Nitrogen plays a critical role in sustaining ecosystem functions in peatlands; however, the degradation of approximately 12% of global peatlands substantially alters nitrogen cycling. Although the abundance of stable nitrogen isotopes (δ15N) has been widely used to trace nitrogen processes, their patterns and implications across degradation gradients are not well understood. This study examined changes in δ15N and their relationships with nitrogen content and environmental factors along a degradation gradient in alpine peatlands, including flooded wetlands, wet meadows, moderately degraded meadows, and severely degraded meadows. Results Soil δ15N increased from flooded wetlands to wet meadows and moderately degraded meadows, likely due to increased nitrogen release as the peatlands dried. However, soil δ15N declined from moderately to severely degraded meadows, possibly reflecting reduced microbial activity and limited nitrogen transformation under extreme degradation. Across all sites, roots were depleted in 15N relative to soil, with increasingly negative Δδ15Nroot–soil values in more degraded sites, likely driven by shifts in plant community composition and changes in nitrogen uptake strategies. Random forest analysis revealed that the soil water content, phosphorus, and nitrogen availability were the primary factors influencing the soil and plant δ15N values, as did 15N fractionation during plant nitrogen uptake along the degradation gradient. Conclusions Peatland degradation leads to greater soil δ15N and increased 15N depletion from soil to plants, indicating a shift toward more open ecosystem nitrogen dynamics and altered plant nitrogen uptake strategies associated with greater nitrogen losses. These findings provide new insights into the impact of peatland degradation on nitrogen dynamics and demonstrate the effectiveness of δ15N as a tool for monitoring changes in nitrogen cycling and availability across degradation levels. Graphical Abstract

The Indonesian government has increasingly prioritised addressing the environmental impacts of peatland degradation through extensive restoration initiatives. However, research on the social dimensions of these efforts, particularly regarding community knowledge and perceptions, remains limited. This study examines community awareness and perceptions of peatland restoration programmes, assessing both direct and indirect involvement. The research was conducted in 32 villages across three targeted peatland restoration districts: Sambas Regency, Mempawah Regency and Kubu Raya Regency. The findings indicate that local communities generally recognise the ecological functions and benefits of peatland restoration, particularly rewetting implemented through canal blocking systems. Likert-scale analysis reveals that most participants expressed positive perceptions of peatland restoration efforts. To enhance community participation, it is crucial to integrate local involvement at all stages of the restoration process including planning, implementation and evaluation. Furthermore, increasing educational outreach on peatland restoration is essential for fostering a shared understanding between local communities and government authorities, thereby strengthening collaborative conservation efforts.

Since 2016, tropical peatland restoration efforts in Kalimantan, Indonesia, have focused on rewetting through canal blocks installation—engineering barriers constructed across drainage canals. This structure is intended to raise the ground water table and re-saturate the peat, thereby reducing its flammability and preventing further degradation. Nonetheless, recurring fires triggered by climatic variability continue to raise a critical question, is canal block effective in controlling tropical peatland degradation? This study evaluates the impact of canal blocks by analyzing peatland displacement. We apply L-band Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR), which provides wide-area, high-resolution measurements of surface movement derived from phase difference analysis of the SAR return signal, complementing spatially limited ground-based methods. A velocity map was generated to illustrate displacement distribution over time. Comparative analyses between pre- and post-restoration periods reveal a clear reduction in subsidence following canal block implementation. Histogram assessments of displacement further support a consistent subsidence decline. Notably, we observed greater stabilization during the stable phase of restoration, suggesting that time is a critical factor in achieving restoration outcomes. Overall, our findings demonstrate that canal blocks can effectively reduce peatland degradation when given sufficient time to take effect, reinforcing their role as a key strategy in tropical peatland recovery.

The use of peatlands for plantations and industrial tree plantations is increasingly widespread and causes land degradation due to excessive drainage. Meanwhile, adaptive agricultural efforts are not yet appropriate for maintaining the peatland environment. This study aimed to assess peatland degradation in Perigi Village, Pangkalan Lampam District, Ogan Komering Ilir Regency. Data obtained were analyzed using a descriptive method, followed by an evaluation of the determination of the level of land degradation with standard criteria for land degradation in wetlands based on the Regulation of the Indonesian Minister of Environment No. 20, 2008. The observations, field measurements, and laboratory analysis showed that the three lands experienced moderate degradation. The parameters that limit and contribute to the land degradation score to a moderately degraded status are shallow groundwater depth, redox, and soil pH that exceeded the threshold value. Adaptive technology must accommodate local knowledge and can increase farmer income.

This study investigated the lateral distribution of geochemical parameters in peatlands within the Punggur Besar River–Kapuas River Peat Hydrology Unit (KHG) in Kubu Raya District, West Kalimantan Province, Indonesia. Peatland degradation in this area is primarily caused by land clearing, uncontrolled drainage, and forest fires, which adversely impact the soil's physical and chemical properties. Key geochemical parameters analyzed include nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), pH, organic carbon, and cation exchange capacity (CEC). Spatial distribution was mapped using GIS technology. The results showed significant variation in nutrient content and soil pH across the study area. Nitrogen content varied between 0.1% and 1.6%, indicating areas of high and low vegetation productivity. Low phosphorus levels in most regions suggest nutrient deficiencies, while potassium concentrations exhibit variability, indicating a potential need for fertilization. Predominantly acidic soil pH (2.8-6.3) challenges vegetation growth and increases fire risk. These discoveries contribute to a fundamental understanding of the geochemical dynamics of peatlands, indispensable for leading sustainable management and restoration efforts. By recognizing areas of high fertility and those requiring restoration interventions, this research assists effective land-use planning and climate mitigation strategies in degraded peatland ecosystems.

Despite numerous government regulations aimed at protecting Indonesia’s peatlands and surrounding communities, the rapid conversion of peatlands to oil palm plantations, coupled with associated fires, continues to cause severe environmental degradation and health-threatening haze that extends to neighboring countries. This study examines the political ecology of oil palm expansion and peatland degradation in the Pelang Peat Landscape, Ketapang, West Kalimantan, focusing on the period 2000–2021. By integrating spatial analysis with qualitative methods—including active participation, in-depth interviews, group discussions, and document review—this research uncovers the dynamics of land-use change and access mechanisms. Findings reveal that oil palm expansion has resulted in significant ecological degradation, particularly in Peat Ecosystem Protection (FLEG) zones, driven by hybrid access mechanisms that combine regulation-based (legal and illegal) and structural-relational strategies, such as financial capital, political authority, identity, and informal land markets. The study also identifies "astroturfing oil palm plantations" as a strategy by large corporations posing as cooperatives to bypass regulations, exacerbating degradation. Expansion patterns are categorized into three forms—centered, spotted, and dispersed—each shaped by actor motivations and capacities. Furthermore, the analysis highlights the interplay between instrumental values (profit-driven motives) and relational values (sustainability and community well-being), which underscores broader tensions in peatland governance. Regulatory incongruence further complicates enforcement, allowing actors to exploit legal ambiguities, perpetuating the "legal, but illegal" and "illegal, but legal" phenomena. These findings underscore the urgent need for integrated governance approaches that address ecological, social, and policy challenges in peatland management.

Abstract In Jambi Province, Indonesia, land cover in Tanjung Jabung Timur Regency has experienced substantial transformation over the past two decades. These changes are closely linked to increasing land use pressures, government development policies, and broader environmental challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and peatland degradation. This study aims to analyze the dynamics of land cover change between 2000 and 2022 within the Peat Hydrological Unit (PHU) area of Tanjung Jabung Timur by employing a remote sensing-based approach using cloud computing technology. Landsat 5, 8, and 9 images were classified using the Support Vector Machine (SVM) algorithm on the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform. The classification incorporated 10 spectral indices to enhance accuracy. The results showed that the SVM classifier achieved a high level of performance, with an Overall Accuracy (OA) of 92.5% and a Kappa coefficient of 88.94. The analysis revealed that the most extensive land cover change occurred in peat swamp forest areas, which were predominantly converted into plantations, contributing to 28.97% of the total PHU area. The findings emphasize the critical role of policy interventions in driving land cover change and highlight the urgent need for sustainable land management strategies to protect peatland ecosystems in the region. Keywords: Government policies, land cover classification, peat Abstrak Perubahan tutupan lahan di Kabupaten Tanjung Jabung Timur, Jambi, Indonesia telah mengalami transformasi substansial selama dua dekade terakhir. Perubahan ini terkait erat dengan meningkatnya tekanan penggunaan lahan, kebijakan pembangunan pemerintah, dan tantangan lingkungan yang lebih luas seperti perubahan iklim, hilangnya keanekaragaman hayati, dan degradasi lahan gambut. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis dinamika perubahan tutupan lahan antara tahun 2000 dan 2022 pada wilayah Kesatuan Hidrologi Gambut (KHG) Tanjung Jabung Timur dengan menggunakan pendekatan berbasis penginderaan jauh menggunakan teknologi cloud computing. Klasifikasi pada Citra Landsat 5, 8, dan 9 dilakukan dengan menggunakan algoritma Support Vector Machine (SVM) pada platform Google Earth Engine (GEE). Klasifikasi tersebut menggabungkan 10 indeks spektral untuk meningkatkan akurasi. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pengklasifikasi SVM mencapai tingkat kinerja yang tinggi, dengan Akurasi Keseluruhan (OA) sebesar 92,5% dan koefisien Kappa sebesar 88,94. Analisis menunjukkan bahwa perubahan tutupan lahan yang paling luas terjadi di kawasan hutan rawa gambut, yang sebagian besar telah dikonversi menjadi perkebunan, yaitu sebesar 28,97% dari total luas KHG. Temuan studi ini menekankan peran penting intervensi kebijakan dalam mendorong perubahan tutupan lahan dan menyoroti kebutuhan mendesak akan strategi pengelolaan lahan berkelanjutan untuk melindungi ekosistem lahan gambut di wilayah tersebut. Kata kunci: Kebijakan pemerintah, klasifikasi penutupan lahan, gambut

Mire ecosystems are highly sensitive to changes in hydrology, which may be caused by changes in climate or land use and in either case disturb the delicate balance between peat accumulation and decomposition. While climate change affects peatlands at global and regional scales, drainage is the most important single factor affecting mires globally at all scales but its effects vary depending on drainage type, climate and initial wetland ecosystem. Mires are important natural ecosystems with high value for climate regulation, biodiversity conservation, flood control and human welfare (Costanza et al. 1997, Erwin 2008) but the quality of these services will decline rapidly if peatlands are drained and often economic (provisioning) values are dominating. In this presentation we introduce drainage effect and its intensity on peatlands by many biotic and abiotic indicators, and demonstrate rewetting options according to land use and initial wetland type based on studies in Estonia, northern temperate climatic zone. Large-scale drainage of mires, especially fens and transitional bogs was executed between the 1950s and the 1980s in Estonia. The main cause of the loss of mires was drainage for forestry and agriculture dominantly in fens and transitional bogs, and peat industry in ombrotrophic bogs. Today peat extraction continues in limited areas (approximately 2% of all drained peatlands). Active restoration of peatlands has been studied globally for decades (Rochefort et al. 1997, Price et al. 1998, Erwin 2008) while knowledge about effectiveness of different rewetting measures and factors affecting successful restoration, especially at regional level are still limited. Besides limitations in knowledge in spatial and temporal dynamics of physico-chemical and biological changes in restored peatlands, uncertainty is even higher about public acceptance and engagement in peatland rewetting. While simple rewetting by ditch blocking in low productivity drained peatland forests or abandoned peat extraction areas are easily accepted publicly, more expensive full-scale restoration activities like moss layer transfer technique or restoring mire ecosystem functions in more productive peatland forest or agricultural lands is often opposed if income providing paludiculture or compensation by other means is not provided. Based on 8 years long time series from rewetted peatlands in Estonia (Fig. 1) we demonstrate that rewetting or restoration cannot bring back all values lost as a result of peatland degradation in short term, but mitigation happens quickly: significant reduction in CO2 emission (up to 40%) takes place within a year, water chemistry (total organic carbon, dissolved nitrogen) improves in 2-3 years while vegetation recovery takes longer and is heavily dependent on weather conditions after rewetting.

Peatland degradation, particularly the increasing risks of fires and flooding due to climate change, necessitates transformative efforts by communities to sustain their livelihoods. This study aims to examine the social resilience of the community in Jambu Baru Village in terms of maintaining their climate-affected livelihoods. The research uses a qualitative method with a phenomenological approach. Data were collected through participant observation, in-depth interviews, and documentation. The findings show that climate change significantly affects the livelihoods of the Jambu Baru Village community, which relies heavily on peatland resources. Resilience is demonstrated through adaptation based on local knowledge. The community's resilience is reflected in diversifying livelihood sources, where households are not dependent on a single income source. Each family typically engages in multiple livelihood activities, such as maiwak, manggau kayu galam, manetes uwey, mamuai banyir, beje management, and others. Furthermore, community resilience is supported by strengthened social solidarity. Resilience emerges from the integration of enhanced economic adaptation, utilization of social capital, and environmental conservation, which are key to sustainable livelihoods. The community also develops local wisdom to reduce the risks of fire and flood disasters. Academically, it is recommended to conduct comparative research on community resilience across different peatland communities to further explore the forms of resilience in the face of increasingly complex climate change impacts. Practically, it is advised that communities develop innovations to produce products with higher economic value.

Abstract The transfer of Sphagnum donor material is an important practice for establishing Sphagnum cultivation sites (SCS) and for restoring bog vegetation, but its effects on bog arthropods, which are often restricted in distribution due to peatland degradation, are poorly understood. This study investigates the accidental translocation of arthropods during the establishment of an SCS in northwestern Germany. Arthropod samples were taken from donor material of two near‐natural donor sites. Subsequently, the arthropod communities and habitat parameters influencing their establishment at the SCS were analysed in the first 2 years after spreading the donor material. A total of 11 arthropod orders were identified in the donor material, with Araneae and Formicidae (Hymenoptera) being the most abundant. However, only a few orders, particularly Araneae, Coleoptera, and Hemiptera, were established in significant numbers at the SCS. Generalised linear mixed models showed that Sphagnum height positively influenced the abundance of all dominant orders at the SCS, while bare peat, open water, straw mulch cover, and vascular plant cover had partially negative effects. Successful arthropod translocation with Sphagnum donor material depends on promoting the rapid formation of a thick Sphagnum carpet at the recipient site as the primary habitat structure.

Investigating the impact of peatland degradation: A lipid biomarker analysis

Abstract The Pinus mugo complex (P. mugo Turra s. l. or P. mugo aggregate) is an important fragment of European dendroflora, which is characterized by high variability, reticulate evolution, and several hybrid zone populations in different parts of Europe. Here we tried to explore the admixture structure of four putative hybrid zones between P. mugo Turra (s. str.) and P. sylvestris L. in Slovakia, using Bayesian ancestry inference with microsatellites. Unexpectedly, compared to nine reference populations, the results showed no elevated allelic diversity in our four locations. However, there was a high marker information content for ancestry based on the reference samples (δ C or D K = 0.451). The individual admixture proportions of P. sylvestris averaged at 0.529, 0.419, and 0.292 in the three locations, with the distribution ranging from unimodality to bimodality. These data support the presence of hybrid zones, but only in association with peatland habitats. In a typical calcicolous pine relict examined, no hybrids were detected, which contrasts earlier reports. The unexpected absence of elevated diversity, including the differences in hybrid zones’ modality within the same habitat, might be explained by population bottlenecks due to anthropogenic peatland degradation during the 1960s to 1980s, when intensive drainage in the region occurred. The study highlights the evolutionary, ecological and conservation value of the studied bog populations.

This study explores the correlation between Peatland Degradation, Carbon Flux, and Fauna in the Congo Basin, with a special emphasis on the Temperature-Dependent Sex Determination (TSD) in African Spurred Tortoises. Utilizing data covering the period of 2015–2023 and advanced ecological modeling techniques, the study demonstrates that peatland drainage leads to increasing carbon emissions into the atmosphere, contributing to regional temperature rises that disrupt tortoise populations. Specifically, in severely degraded regions, carbon emissions could reach 20–23.5 tons of CO2 per hectare annually, potentially driving regional temperature increases of 2–3°C by 2050. The analysis integrates high-resolution satellite imagery, carbon exchange measurements, and population density data of African Spurred Tortoises to quantify these impacts. Our findings highlight that, under continued peatland degradation, the proportion of female hatchlings in African Spurred Tortoise populations is projected to rise to 78.4%. However, with effective peatland restoration, this proportion could be reduced to 52.1%, indicating a more balanced and stable population structure. By linking species loss to peatland degradation, this study offers tangible and scientifically validated restoration strategies that can significantly reduce carbon emissions and stabilize local ecosystems. The results emphasize the importance of a systems-based approach to peatland restoration, integrating ecological, social, and policy dimensions to protect biodiversity and mitigate climate change impacts.

Mapping the distribution and condition of mountain peatlands in Colombia for sustainable ecosystem management.