Time-use Patterns Research Articles

University-related travel behavior: Young adults’ decision-making in Iran

Recent research suggests that travel behaviors among young adults in the West are changing to rely less on automobile than previous generations. However, little attention has been paid to young adult travelers in developing countries in terms of their mode choices and willingness to adapt to alternative modes compared to the West. This study investigates travel behavior among Iranian university students, who generate a considerable proportion of the daily trips in Iran’s largest cities. To investigate university-related travel behavior, current and preferred mode choices were examined for three popular modes of transportation. A comprehensive survey was used to collect data from university students aged 18–30 years old at twelve universities in metropolitan Shiraz. The predictive factors included perceptions toward public transit and walkability, travel attitudes, lifestyle, and built environment characteristics. Employing multilevel integrated multinomial logit and structural equation model approach, this study found that even though public transit was the most common mode of transportation at the time of the study, the majority of respondents reported their preference for private cars compared to public transit. This finding is contrary to the consensus on Millennials’ travel behavior in developed countries, which finds that Millennials tend to prefer active travel modes and public transit. The significant attitudinal factors included friendship orientation, and significant lifestyle factors included technological and sport-oriented lifestyles, which influenced current and preferred modal choices. Cultural and educational contexts arguably encourage a preference for driving among young adults in Shiraz. Restrictions on inter-gender interaction among young adults in public places and on public transit in publicly religious cultures such as Iran’s also contribute to young adults’ preferences for private cars, which differs from the situation in developed countries. Using a private car to demonstrate prestige to others could be more important to young Iranians than the use of automobiles for transportation purposes, which changes the basic function of the vehicle. The unexpected positive relationship between a sport-oriented lifestyle and private car usage might be because university students do not value walking as the most important daily physical activity and this lifestyle is a time-use pattern rather than a behavioral orientation. Two perceptions toward walkability (walking infrastructure and streetscape) positively influenced current and preferred walking/cycling mode. The built environment characteristics of distance to university, land-use diversity, and street density influenced modal choices. Policy suggestions and theoretical contributions that support young adults’ sustainable university-related travel are discussed.

Daily Time-Use Patterns, Psychological Well-Being, and Family Socioeconomic Status of South Korean Adolescents: A Mixture Modeling

The current study sought to identify different types of South Korean adolescents’ time-use patterns across various daily activities, compare the levels of psychological well-being among the identified groups, and examine the association between daily time-use patterns and family socioeconomic status. By using the fifth wave of Korean Children and Youth Panel Survey, the data of 1,764 eighth grade students currently living in two-parent families were analyzed using a mixture modeling. The best fitting model revealed four types of time-use patterns: (1) Study Hard (2) No Hagwon, but Independent Studies (3) Only Hagwon, and (4) No study, Skewed toward Entertainment. Differences in the level of psychological well-being were found for different time-use types. Moreover, the probability of being included in each type varied according to family socioeconomic status. The results demonstrated the role of family socioeconomic status in adolescents’ time-use patterns and verified the differences in the level of psychological well-being according to how adolescents used their daily time.

Study and Life: How first year university students use their time

Starting university changes the way students must structure their day. This study describes the patterns of time use of 444 Australian first year students and explores differences between gender and age groups. Overall, students were studying on average four hours per day (h/day), sleeping eight h/day and meeting Australian physical activity guidelines. A sizable portion of students’ days were spent engaging in ‘non-modifiable’ activities including self-care, chores and travel. Stereotypical gender and age differences were observed, with males accumulating significantly more screen-time (+68 minutes per day [min/d]) and physical activity (+21 min/d), while females did more chores (+18 min/d) and self-care (+26 min/d). Younger students slept more (+42 min/d), and did fewer chores (-43 min/d). Given there are strong associations between how students use their time and health, well-being and academic success, a better understanding of how students allocate their time on a day-to-day basis will enable more effective support for students in making these changes.

Allocation of Time and Household-level Consumption Equivalent Welfare: A Case of South Korea

ABSTRACTUsing “2014 Time Usage and Quality of Life” of 17th KLIPS (Korean Labour and Income Panel Study), the first and most detailed time use survey of its kind in South Korea, we first document the patterns of time use in market work, nonmarket work (household work), child care, and a variety of definitions in leisure. We find that, while men work longer hours, men’s additional market work is well compensated by more leisure and less hours in nonmarket work and child care. We also find within-household unequal distribution of time use in nonmarket work, child care, and leisure in favour of men. Consistent with the cases of the US and other advanced economies, high-income earners tend to enjoy less hours of leisure while they spend more money on leisure activities. Secondly, we calculate the household-level consumption equivalent measure that considers consumption, leisure, life expectancy, and uncertainty. We find that taking into account non-separable preference over leisure and consumption and the quality of leisure is important and household-level welfare measures based solely on income or consumption are both incomplete and misleading.

Influence of an Equine-Assisted Activities Program on Dementia-Specific Quality of Life.

Institutional facilities face challenges providing experiences to residents with dementia that promote participation in meaningful activities. Guided by the Lived Environment Life Quality Model, this study investigated associations between 9 different activity situations-one an equine-assisted activities program (EAAP)-and positive, negative, and neutral behavioral indicators of quality of life (QoL) in 6 residents with dementia who expressed an interest in horses. Direct observational data were collected for 4 hours twice weekly over 8 weeks. Using χ2 tests, differences across activity situations were tested. More positive patterns of time use (conversation; χ2 = 44.3, P < .001) and emotional well-being (pleasure; χ2 = 21.8, P = .001) were found in EAAP compared to other activity situations. Further, EAAP was the only activity situation associated with all positive QoL indicators. These findings add to our understanding the importance of providing meaningful activities that promote use of abilities and provide environmental support, for enhancing QoL, especially for institutionalized people with dementia.

Patterns of Time Use across the Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Severity Spectrum.

Descriptions of time use patterns in people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are scarce and the relationship between use-of-time and COPD severity remains unclear. This study aimed to describe a typical day for people with COPD and to explore the differences in time-use patterns across the Body Mass-Index, Airflow Obstruction, Dyspnoea and Exercise Capacity (BODE) index using compositional analyses. Using a cross-sectional design, 141 adults with clinically stable COPD had their demographics, objective measures of function (pulmonary, exercise capacity and physical activity), and self-reported COPD-related impairment recorded. Daily time-use compositions were derived from 24-h accelerometry and 24-h use-of-time recall interviews. Compositional multiple linear regression models were used to explore the relationship between the BODE index and 24-h time-use compositions. These models were used to predict daily time (min/d) that is spent in time-use components across the BODE index. The BODE index score was clearly associated with 24-h accelerometry (p < 0.0001) and 24-h use-of-time recall (p < 0.0001) compositions. Relative to the remaining time-use components, higher BODE index scores were associated with greater sedentary behaviour (p < 0.0001), Quiet time (p < 0.0001), Screen time (p = 0.001) and Self-care (p = 0.022), and less daily Chores (p < 0.0001) and Household administration (p = 0.015) time. As the BODE index scores increased, time-use predictions were strongly associated with decreases in Chores (up to 206 min/d), and increases in Screen (up to 156 min/d) and Quiet time (up to 131 min/d). Time–use patterns may provide a basis for planning interventions relative to the severity of COPD.

Unequal Times: Social Structure, Temporal Perspective, and Time Allocation in Poland

This study explored the links between individual’s time perspective and their structural position as well as related this perspective to how people spend their time. Time perspective was defined by individual’s scores on two distinct factors—future-orientation and clock-orientation. These factors were analysed jointly in order to account for how people organized their time within a short-term (clock-orientation) and a long-term (future-orientation) horizon. Temporal orientations were socially differentiated, primarily by education and income. Better educated individuals were more future-oriented, while those with higher income showed preference for more rigid clock-based organization of time on a daily basis. Both orientations were also related to how time was spent. Clock-oriented individuals allocated significantly more time to paid work and less time to social life or personal time. Future-oriented respondents spent more time on personal life and physical exercise. These findings suggest that temporal orientations are linked to how much time individuals allocate to both market and non-market activities, net of their other social characteristics. The study casts light on the much overlooked dimension of social inequality—the temporal one, and links individual’s structural position, attitudes towards time, and time-use patterns.

Basic care, play, and teaching: the home learning environment and the ‘developmental gradient’ in time use with children

ABSTRACTBased on the concept of educational quality of the home learning environment, stimulating and responsive family time is crucial for children’s development. In turn, time use depends on the developmental stages in childhood. International studies indicate that family patterns of time use are associated with a family’s resources (i.e. level of education) and age of the children. To detect assumed time use patterns, this paper distinguishes between caring activities (basic care) and educational activities (play and teaching) of daily family life with children of various age groups (infants, preschool aged children, and primary school aged children). Data are drawn from the Time Use Survey in 2012/2013 conducted by the German Federal Statistical Office (N = 560). Tobit regression analyses show that time use for each activity differs between families with low and families with high level of education, referring to various child age groups. The results indicate that a ‘developmental gradient’ for time use in the home learning environment is evident.

Academic Probation, Time Management, and Time Use in a College Success Course

Effective time management often undergirds students’ success in college, and many postsecondary learning centers offer services to help students assess and improve this aspect of their learning skills. In the context of a college success course, we gathered insights from assignments to consider various facets of students’ time-related behaviors and attitudes. Specifically, we examined a range of indicators of time management (i.e., setting goals and priorities, mechanics of time management, preference for organization, and procrastination) and use (i.e., total hours tracked in various categories, patterns of time use during a seven-day period). Implications for practice derive from the tendencies for the group of enrolled students as a whole as well as the differences between students who were and were not on academic probation.

Time use by family caregivers of elderly with dementia: an integrative review.

To describe the development of measures used between 1993 and 2016 to evaluate time use by family caregivers of elderly with dementia and to find out the patterns of time use identified in the literature. An integrative review of articles was performed, indexed by the following terms: time use management, family caregiver and elderly. A total of 17 articles were found, of which seven were methodological. Among these seven articles, five were psychometric. The most frequently used measures were self-reporting (matrices, questionnaires and inventories), validated through objective measures of occurrence and duration. Longitudinal, prospective, clinical and correlational studies showed that care time covaries with the receptors' dependence and that the caregivers' subjective well-being is more affected by the time restriction to free choice activities than the burden resulting from obligatory activities. Final considerations: Valid self-reporting measures are widely used nowadays and they are considered to be effective to assess the objective and subjective costs of health care for dementia.

Daily Time-Use Patterns and Obesity and Mental Health among Primary School Students in Shanghai: A Population-Based Cross-Sectional Study

Physical activity, screen viewing, sleep, and homework among children have been independently linked to health outcomes. However, few studies have assessed the independent associations between time spent in daily activities and children’s physical and mental health. This study describes time spent in four activities among primary school students in Shanghai, and examines the relationship between daily time-use patterns and obesity and mental health. The representative sample consists of 17,318 children aged 6–11 years in Shanghai. Time spent in moderate to vigorous physical activities (MVPA), screen viewing, sleep, and homework was measured by validated questionnaires. Logistic regressions were performed. We also fitted generalized additive models (GAM) and performed two-objective optimization to minimize the probability of poor mental health and obesity. In 2014, 33.7% of children spent ˂1 hour/day on MVPA, 15.6% spent ≥ 2 hours/day on screen viewing, 12.4% spent ˂ 9 hours/day on sleep, and 27.2% spent ≥ 2 hours/day on homework. The optimization results suggest that considering the 24-hour time limit, children face trade-offs when allocating time. A priority should be given to the duration of sleep and MVPA. Screen exposure should be minimized to save more time for sleep and other beneficial activities.

Allocation of Time and Household-Level Consumption Equivalent Welfare: A Case of South Korea

Using “2014 Time Usage and Quality of Life” of 17th KLIPS (Korean Labor and Income Panel Study), the first and most detailed time use survey of its kind in South Korea, we first document the patterns of time use in market work, nonmarket work (household work), child care, and a variety of definitions in leisure. We find that, while men work longer hours, men’s additional market work is well compensated by more leisure and less hours in nonmarket work and child care. We also find within-household unequal distribution of time use in nonmarket work, child care, and leisure in favour of men. Consistent with the cases of US and other advanced economies, high-income earners tend to enjoy less hours of leisure while they spend more money in leisure activities. Secondly, we calculate the household-level consumption equivalent measure that considers consumption, leisure, life expectancy, and uncertainty. We find that taking into account non-separable preference over leisure and consumption and quality of leisure is important and household-level welfare measures based solely on income or consumption are both incomplete and misleading.

Time-Use Patterns and Health-Related Quality of Life in Adolescents.

To describe 24-hour time-use patterns and their association with health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in early adolescence. The Child Health CheckPoint was a cross-sectional study nested between Waves 6 and 7 of the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children. The participants were 1455 11- to 12-year-olds (39% of Wave 6; 51% boys). The exposure was 24-hour time use measured across 259 activities using the Multimedia Activity Recall for Children and Adolescents. "Average" days were generated from 1 school and 1 nonschool day. Time-use clusters were derived from cluster analysis with compositional inputs. The outcomes were self-reported HRQoL (Physical and Psychosocial Health [PedsQL] summary scores; Child Health Utility 9D [CHU9D] health utility). Four time-use clusters emerged: "studious actives" (22%; highest school-related time, low screen time), "techno-actives" (33%; highest physical activity, lowest school-related time), "stay home screenies" (23%; highest screen time, lowest passive transport), and "potterers" (21%; low physical activity). Linear regression models, adjusted for a priori confounders, showed that compared with the healthiest "studious actives" (mean [SD]: CHU9D 0.84 [0.14], PedsQL physical 86.8 [10.8], PedsQL psychosocial 79.9 [12.6]), HRQoL in "potterers" was 0.2 to 0.5 SDs lower (mean differences [95% confidence interval]: CHU9D -0.03 [-0.05 to -0.00], PedsQL physical -5.5 [-7.4 to -3.5], PedsQL psychosocial -5.8 [-8.0 to -3.5]). Discrete time-use patterns exist in Australian young adolescents. The cluster characterized by low physical activity and moderate screen time was associated with the lowest HRQoL. Whether this pattern translates into precursors of noncommunicable diseases remains to be determined.

A Methodology on Quantifying Spatial-Temporal Disparities in Travel Behavior of Mobility-Impaired Travelers with Non-Disabled Travelers: Case Studies of London and New York

Background Physically-impaired citizens are, arguably, the most vulnerable group of the society and, unfortunately, often the least favored one. Transportation and mobility are key players in determining the qualities of life such that transport disadvantaged urban forms are associated with the risk of social exclusions of the citizens. For physically-impaired individuals, the burden caused by an inaccessible transportation system is more severe due to the coupled effects of limited mobility due to impaired personal health and lack of good mobility service. Providing a good and accessible transportation service requires (1) a better understanding of travel behavior of the target population, (2) quantifying mobility disparities between the patterns of the target population and others, and (3) detecting the operational gap. Methods We developed a methodology to compare the mobility behavior in two dimension of time and space. The steps are: Generation of Scheme Characteristic Vectors (SCV) to compare the patterns in the dimension of space. These vectors are generated based on some set of geometric and shape formatting operations; Generation of Temporal Activity Strings (TAS) to compare the patterns in the dimension of time; Clustering SCV and TAS in the dimensions of time and space using a two stage clustering method: affinity propagation and k-means clustering; Finding the K-nearest neighbors (KNN) based on the demographic attributes to measure the dissimilarity in the observed mobility behavior of physically disabled travelers to others who have similar demographic attributes. This step addressed the question of ‘what would be the spatial-temporal pattern of a disabled person if she/he was not disabled?’ Results We applied the methodology to London and NYC. A total of seven temporal clusters for NYC and 10 temporal clusters for London emerged from the data. For spatial analysis, 10 spatial patterns for NYC and 13 patterns for London were formed. In both regions, a comparison of the time-use behavior and spatial mobility shows significant disparities in time-use patterns of disabled people. A lower percentage of disabled travelers spend their time out of home, or make short trips. In spatial pattern comparison, the difference between mobility patterns in NYC is more significant than in London. Conclusions We developed innovative techniques to quantify the gap between the mobility behavior of disabled people and others. The results can be used in any urban planning decision making, where multiple factors of economic considerations and equity need to be taken into account.

0411 INSOMNIA SYMPTOMS AND TIME-USE IN THE WORKING POPULATION: AN EXPLORATIVE STUDY USING DIARY DATA

Insomnia symptoms in the working population might be related to insufficient time for recovery between workdays. The aim of the present study was to investigate differences in time-use pattern during a workweek between employees with insomnia symptoms and employees considered to be good sleepers. Participants (N=579; 76% women) were full-time workers within the public sector in Sweden. Data were collected during one week through questionnaires and diaries. Time-use was reported through 13 different activity categories every half hour daily between 06:00 am and 01:00 am the next night. Differences in the amount of paid work (including overtime), non-paid work (including domestic work, care for children and care for others) and free-time/recovery activities were explored on workdays and days off separately. Among participants, 22% were classified as suffering from insomnia according to the Karolinska Sleep Questionnaire. During workdays, employees suffering from insomnia spent on average 7:59 hours (h) on paid work, 1:46 h on non-paid work and 5:58 h on free-time/recovery activities. For good sleepers the corresponding time-use was 8:03 h for paid work, 1:34 h on non-paid work and 6:02 h on free-time/recovery activities. Analyses of variance showed that time-use patterns did not differ significantly between the groups, even when adjusting for gender and age. On days off, there were similarly no significant differences between the groups. Insomnia symptoms do not seem to be related to time-use among full-time workers in the public sector in Sweden.

The nexus between health and time use among racially and ethnically diverse women

ABSTRACTObjectivesEthnic and racial health disparities have been well-documented in the scholarly literature. In recent years, evidence about time spent in physical (in)activity and its relationship to physical and mental health has also emerged. This study assesses if observed ethnic/racial health differences were associated with differences in time use.DesignOur analyses utilized baseline data from 510 Utah women who enrolled in one of two community-based, participatory research intervention studies between 2012 and 2015. The distinct racial/ethnic groups included African immigrants, African Americans, Latinas, Native Hawaiians/Pacific Islanders, American Indians/Alaskan Natives, and rural White, Non-Latina women. In the baseline survey, respondents reported the typical time they spent in paid employment, television/movie viewing, physical activity, food preparation/clean-up, and sleep. Cluster analysis was used to identify seven distinct patterns of time use within these five activities. We related these time use patterns along with race/ethnicity, socio-demographics, and other potentially contributing health-related factors (e.g. smoking status) to two health outcomes: (1) self-reported health status, and (2) depression.ResultsOur time use clusters revealed heterogeneity by racial/ethnic groups, suggesting that some of the health effects that may have been previously ascribed to group membership should instead be attributed to (un)healthy patterns of time use. In particular, spending too much time in sedentary activities such as watching television/movies and too little time sleeping both linked to poor physical and mental health, independently of racial/ethnic group membership.ConclusionsResearchers and policy makers designing culturally sensitive physical activity health-related interventions should consider patterns of time use that are associated with poor health. Programs designed to improve sleep time and reduce sedentary television-viewing time may be as important as interventions designed to increase physical activity time. These broader patterns of time use mediated the relationships between race/ethnicity and physical and mental health for the women in our study.

Gendered Patterns of Time Use over the Life Cycle: Evidence from Turkey

Using data from the 2006 Turkish Time-Use Survey, we examine gender differences in time allocation among married heterosexual couples over the life cycle. While we find large discrepancies in the gender division of both paid and unpaid work at each life stage, the gender gap in paid and unpaid work is largest among parents of infants compared to parents of older children and couples without children. The gender gap narrows as children grow up and parents age. Married women's housework time remains relatively unchanged across their life cycle, while older men spend more time doing housework than their younger counterparts. Over the course of the life cycle, women's total work burden increases relative to men's. Placing our findings within the gendered institutional context in Turkey, we argue that gender-inequitable work-family reconciliation policies that are based on gendered assumptions of women's role as caregivers exacerbate gender disparities in time use.

The effect of caregiver training in increasing social interaction and contact time with children living in residential care facilities

Infants and toddlers living in residential care facilities are at risk of developmental delay. Environmental factors contributing to this risk are the temporal context (how children spend their time) and social context (how and when caregivers interact with the children). This study compared time-use patterns of children living in residential care facilities where caregiver training had previously taken place versus those in facilities where caregiver training had not taken place using a non-experimental, cross sectional static group comparison study design. Spot observations were used to estimate time-use patterns of infants and toddlers living in residential care facilities in Johannesburg. Results show that caregiver training positively changed the quantity of the time that infants spent with their caregivers (temporal context) and the quality of time toddlers spent with their caregivers (social context). Thus caregiver training has the potential to improve the environment in residential care facilities and can be used as an intervention strategy by occupational therapists Key words : Residential care facilities, time-use patterns, caregiver training, quantity of time spent caregiving, quality of time spent caregiving

Exploratory Analysis of the Activity Time-Use Frontier and Its Effect on Episodic Well-Being: Data from the Disability and Use of Time Survey

The role of time (as a constrained resource) in terms of budgets and expenditures is of great importance in travel behavior analysis within the context of daily activity engagement choices, emotional well-being, and quality of life. This research investigated the behavioral links between activity time budgets and episodic well-being measures in a two-stage process, using data from the 2009 Disability and Use of Time Survey. First, with the use of the episodic-level data, time budgets were formulated with the use of a stochastic frontier modeling approach. The technical inefficiency measure that represented the degree to which an individual expended his or her time (or an upper bound of the time budget) in activity engagement was also derived. Second, with the use of this measure of technical inefficiency, the effects on reported individuals’ episodic well-being measures were further investigated. The indicators of well-being—happiness, calmness, frustration, sadness, worry, tiredness, and pain—were analyzed with a multivariate ordered probit modeling framework. The models were estimated by controlling for a broad array of covariates related to sociodemographics, activity, and travel characteristics, along with the social contexts of companionship and altruism and global well-being indicators. Empirical results suggested that individuals experienced varying levels of positive and negative emotions from their daily activity time-use patterns, in both efficient and inefficient episodes. Productive episodes (e.g., working and volunteering) with higher time budgets (or inefficiencies) increased the likelihood of individuals experiencing higher levels of negative emotions. The model findings also revealed that high-income households and individuals younger than 65 years old with inefficient time-use patterns exhibited lower levels of happiness and calmness.

Patterns of Time Use Across the Life Span in Korea: A Latent Class Analysis and Age and Gender Differences

The purpose of this study was to gain an understanding of time use and the patterns of time use across the life span using a socioemotional selectivity theory. The data used for this study were from the “Korean Time Use Survey,” which is collected every 5 years by Statistics Korea (KOSTAT). The data collected in 1999, 2004, and 2009 were used to analyze the patterns of time use using latent class analyses and to observe the differences of time use by age and gender. The results were summarized as follows: Based on the analyses of nine behavior classifications, after sleep and personal care, Korean allocated more time in daily activities to relationship and leisure time, followed by education, paid work, and household management, with the order differing between each age group and gender. Three different classes of time use were classified at each age group. Education-centered time use was revealed to be mainly in the young, paid work-centered in the middle-aged, and relationship and leisure-centered in older adults. We find significant gender differences. Men’s patterns of time did not change markedly across the 3 years, while women’s patterns have shifted. Meanwhile, in the age 65 and older group, paid work appeared alongside as well as leisure among most prominent activities, were appeared as dominant forms of time use. This phenomenon is closely related to reflecting high rates of elderly poverty in Korea. Further discussions concerning the time use by age and gender were provided and countermeasures for changing time use in later life were discussed.