Patterns Of Inequality Research Articles

Segregation within segregation: Informal settlements beyond socially homogenous areas

More than one billion people live in slums and informal settlements worldwide. This urban condition poses an urgent need to look more closely into the spatial complexities of these areas. Informal settlements are still commonly seen as segregated places of poverty. Due to the usual scales of analyses, the social and spatial complexity of informal settlements may be easily overlooked. Although previous qualitative studies have suggested that poor areas are internally differentiated, there is little systematic study to date identifying patterns of segregation within poor areas through rigorous analysis. This paper explores a spatial statistical method to challenge the common-sense notion of informal settlements as socially homogeneous places. We do so by analysing segregation within areas that are themselves already segregated — a multiscalar property that may pervade smaller, seemingly homogeneous areas. We apply Moran's index to analyse residential segregation based on income within 42 largest informal settlements and nine Brazilian cities. Our results show that 37 % of the informal settlements analysed are composed of a complex residential mix featuring internal inequality patterns akin to those found in cities. Our approach also identifies racial inequalities and uneven access to urban infrastructures within favelas.

Promise or peril? Exploring the gender dimension of pragmatic peacebuilding

Abstract International efforts to manage conflict, instability and war-to-peace transitions have undergone a change. Where ‘liberal peace’ once informed peacebuilding strategies, international agencies now frame their work with recourse to ‘sustaining peace’. This change signals a shift towards pragmatism in thinking about conflict and peace-making in the face of the limitations of liberal peace. What is notable in the move to pragmatic modes of peacebuilding is the emphasis on women as agents of peace. While gender-sensitive peacebuilding is not a new concept, the prominent role it plays in the pragmatic peace merits attention. Drawing on feminist pragmatism, I argue that pragmatic peace represents a significant opportunity for shifting peacebuilding practice towards more gender-equal and gender-sensitive modalities. Yet, an investigation into the gender dimension of pragmatic peace in post-Gaddafi Libya, implemented through empowerment programs, finds the promise unfulfilled. While such initiatives have had some successes in supporting women's collective action, capacity-building programs have not only failed to create meaningful opportunities for exercising agency, but have instrumentalized women's participation and reinforced existing patterns of inequality among women. The experiences of those to be empowered suggest that empowerment initiatives fall prey to the type of technocratic and de-politicizing peril that has characterized liberal peace interventions.

Interpretable machine learning learns complex interactions of urban features to understand socio‐economic inequality

AbstractInequality in cities is a phenomenon arising from the complex interactions among urban systems and population activities. Conventional statistics and mathematical models like multiple regression models require assumptions of feature interactions with specified mathematical forms that may fail to fully capture complex interactions of heterogeneous urban components, creating challenges in systematically assessing socio‐economic inequality in cities. To overcome the limitations of these conventional mathematical models, in this work, we propose an interpretable machine learning model to capture the complex interactions of urban variables and the main interaction effects on socio‐economic statuses. We extract urban features from high‐resolution anonymized mobile phone data with billions of activity records related to people and facilities in 47 US metropolitan areas and predict the attributes of urban areas from six income and race groups. We show that socio‐economic inequality in cities can be effectively measured by the predictability of trained machine learning models in controlled experiments. We also examine the tradeoff between spatial resolution, sample size, and model accuracy; test the presence of influential features; and measure the transferability of the trained models to identify the optimal values for controlled factors. The results show that metropolitan areas share similar patterns of inequality, which could be moderated by improved polycentric facility distribution and road density. The generality of associated factors and transferability of machine learning models can help bridge data gaps between cities and inform about inequality alleviation strategies. Despite similarities, 50% to 90% of variations among cities are still present, which shows the need for localized policies for inequality alleviation and mitigation. Our study shows that machine learning models could be an effective approach to examine inequality, which opens avenues for more data‐centric and complexity‐informed planning, design, policymaking, and engineering toward equitable cities.

Black Protesters in a White Social Movement: Looking to the Anti–Iraq War Movement to Develop a Theory of Racialized Activism

On the basis of ethnographic and historical accounts, many movement scholars hold that differences in political expectations and interaction styles inhibit cross-racial collaboration in social movements. Inspired by this research, the authors ask three questions about minority participation in social movements and address them using a survey of more than 6,000 participants in the anti–Iraq War movement. First, the authors ask about relational inequality. Did Black protesters have fewer ties with the antiwar movement than Whites? Second, the authors ask about siloing. Were Black protesters disproportionately concentrated in specific movement organizations? Third, the authors ask if patterns of inequality were similar for Latino and Asian activists? The authors find evidence of relational inequality for Black activists but not Latino or Asian activists. They find evidence of siloing for all three ethnic groups. These empirical results are used to articulate an account of racialized activism with special attention to organizational processes.

Defining affordability and adaptation resource prioritisation

Across Europe there is an increasing behavioural turn in flood risk management, focussing on individual behaviour and responsibilities. For example, a greater focus on implementing property-level resilience measures. A conclusion from this trend is that there are additional burdens being placed on the residents of flood-prone areas, in the hope of reducing their overall burden; therefore, we must understand the burden that is being created as we can unintentionally create new patterns of inequality in terms of who is and is not protected if certain individuals can be judged to be overburdened. This is particularly relevant in the aftermath of disaster events when there is a push to build resilience. One concept for measuring this aspect of the burden generated is affordability, which seeks to define and measure what a suitable burden on an actor is, and then can be targeted for additional assistance, for example, loans, vouchers, or subsidies to eliminate the burden. The concept of affordability can be used to identify how to best spend resources after a disaster event to support a process of ‘building back better’; however, the way this burden can be defined and addressed can also be influenced by different social justice considerations and definitions. This research explores the implications of different social justice concepts for defining what is a reasonable burden that can be placed on the individuals expected to adapt to and limit flood impacts and on the policy strategies and outcomes.

THE BRITISH IN THE BAY: OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AND BIOLOGICAL DISPARITIES

THE BRITISH IN THE BAY: OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AND BIOLOGICAL DISPARITIES

Editorial: Consequences of the Corona crisis for social inequalities in Germany

The possible consequences of the Corona crisis for social inequalities have received a lot of attention in public as well as scientific debates. On the one hand, concerns have been raised that the pandemic intensified pre-existing patterns of social inequality. On the other hand, the crisis has also been seen as an opportunity for social change and a renegotiation of social relationships. Complementing previous research that focused on the immediate consequences of the pandemic, this Special Issue is devoted to its longer-term effects. It unites six theory-guided empirical studies that use qualitative and quantitative longitudinal data to study changes in social inequality in the course of the pandemic in different life domains. Overall, the results do not show a universal trend of increased inequalities. While changes in different life domains occurred, such as better grading for students, intensified strong ties in families or increased social trust, there is only limited evidence of changes in social inequalities. In general, a complex picture of effects, consequences and concomitants of the pandemic appears.

Determinants of Regional Disparities in Housing Prices: A Spatial Analysis of German Regions

Germany is characterised by heterogeneous regional development in various economic spheres, including housing markets. Differences in housing prices persist during decades, causing undesirable inequality, affecting migration and employment patterns. The purpose of this work is to identify regional factors which affect regional housing prices in Germany. The peculiarity of the study is the consideration of the spatial location of regions for analysing the influence of the characteristics of neighbouring regions. Based on data from 397 German regions for 2004-2019, spatial econometric panel data models are built, which consider both selling and rental prices. The following factors that affect demand in the housing market are used as determinants of housing prices: the unemployment rate, the balance of pendulum migration at the place of work and living, the share of employment, wages, the number of employees, gross regional product. The analysis findings revealed that factors that raise income for the population trigger an upsurge in demand and prices for housing. Conversely, opposite effects result in a decline in prices due to a decrease in demand. Moreover, it was verified that neighbouring regions mutually affect housing markets through pendulum migration and the creation of economic clusters with similar living standards and prices. Furthermore, changes in labour market metrics are crucial; unemployment, wages, and the number of workers in nearby regions have a significant influence on real estate prices in the area under examination. The study’s practical importance lies in the possibility of using its outcomes to develop regional and migration policies.

Assessment of spatial equity of urban park distribution from the perspective of supply-demand interactions

Urban parks have been widely recognized for the critical functions they provide in enhancing health and wellbeing. However, parks are known to be inadequately provided and non-uniformly distributed in cities, leading to an increasing interest to examine spatial equity of park distribution. Such studies have mostly focused on the distributional attributes of park supply in determining spatial equity, while the role of residents’ demand is usually ignored or not adequately assessed. In addition, people’s preferences for park use were normally ignored and nearest parks were assumed as supplier of park services. Moreover, even though equity assessment is scale-dependent, few studies adopt a multi-scale assessment. We report on a study to address these gaps. A multi-scale Supply-Demand Equity Index (SDEI) was developed to assess spatial equity of park distribution from the perspective of supply and demand interactions, and data were collected at a fine scale of neighborhood level. Residents’ accessibility to their most often used parks and nearest parks were used to assess and compare supply level; while residents’ perceptions obtained from surveys and population density were used to assess and compare demand level. Results showed that supply measured by accessibility to most often used park more accurately reflects supply, and demand assessment on the basis of perception could reflect variations among different social groups and reveal otherwise hidden patterns of spatial inequity. It was also shown that SDEI could identify areas where mismatch between supply and demand occurs. We demonstrated in a single study that different definitions and approaches of quantifying spatial equity can lead to distinct conclusions, therein highlighting that the complex nature of equity requires nuanced approaches and providing a broader view of equity assessment. In addition, the implications of this study for urban park planning and management were highlighted.

Vacancy, access to housing and micro‑segregation

The paper contributes to a better understanding of the relationship between housing oversupply and patterns of socio-spatial inequality. Drawing on a qualitative study conducted between 2016–2019 focused on a central district of Athens, the analysis addresses two entangled issues: the contextual factors that give rise to diverse spatial and temporal patterns of vacancy and their link to existing patterns of segregation, and the reshaping of both in the years following the 2008 crisis. By looking at the micro-geographies of inhabitation, the analysis shows how housing practices built‑in in the local housing regime, growing housing precarity, and emerging reuse dynamics shape the fragmented patterns of vacancy present in central Athens. The paper concludes that the ways in which housing and property regimes are practiced crucially shape access modalities of vacancy and segregation in place. Thereby, stressing the need to place vacancy in broader debates around access to housing and exclusion in cities.

Online panel work through a gender lens: implications of digital peer review meetings

Abstract Previous studies have highlighted how the academic peer review system has been marked by gender bias and nepotism. Panel meetings arranged by research funding organisations (RFOs), where reviewers must explain and account for their assessment and scoring of grant applications, can potentially mitigate and disrupt patterns of inequality. They can however also constitute arenas where biases are reproduced. This article explores, through a gender lens, the shift from face-to-face to digital peer review meetings in a Swedish RFO, focusing on the implications for an unbiased and fair grant allocation process. Drawing on twenty-two interviews with panellists and staff in the RFO, the analysis identifies both benefits and challenges of this shift, regarding use of resources, meeting dynamics, micropolitics, social glue, and possibilities for group reflections. RFOs deliberating digitalisation of their peer review processes need to consider these implications to develop policies promoting unbiased and fair grant allocation processes and procedures.

Global state of education-related inequality in COVID-19 vaccine coverage, structural barriers, vaccine hesitancy, and vaccine refusal: findings from the Global COVID-19 Trends and Impact Survey

COVID-19 vaccine coverage and experiences of structural and attitudinal barriers to vaccination vary across populations. Education-related inequality in COVID-19 vaccine coverage and barriers within and between countries can provide insight into the hypothesised role of education as a correlate of vaccine access and acceptability. We aimed to characterise patterns of within-country education-related inequality in COVID-19 vaccine indicators across 90 countries. This study used data from the University of Maryland Social Data Science Center Global COVID-19 Trends and Impact Survey. Data from 90 countries (more than 14 million participants aged 18 years and older) were included in our analyses. We assessed education-related inequalities globally, across country-income groupings, and nationally for four indicators (self-reported receipt of COVID-19 vaccine, structural barriers to vaccination, vaccine hesitancy, and vaccine refusal) for the study period June 1-Dec 31, 2021. We calculated an absolute summary measure of inequality to assess the latest situation of inequality and time trends and explored the association between government vaccine availability policies and education-related inequality. Nearly all countries had higher self-reported receipt of a COVID-19 vaccine among the most educated respondents than the least educated respondents. Education-related inequality in structural barriers, vaccine hesitancy, and vaccine refusal varied across countries, and was most pronounced in high-income countries, overall. Low-income and lower-middle-income countries reported widespread experiences of structural barriers and high levels of vaccine hesitancy alongside low levels of education-related inequality. Globally, vaccine hesitancy in unvaccinated people was higher among those with lower education and vaccine refusal was higher among those with higher education, especially in high-income countries. Over the study period, education-related inequalities in self-reported receipt of a COVID-19 vaccine declined, globally and across all country income groupings. Government policies expanding vaccine availability were associated with lower education-related inequality in self-reported receipt of vaccine. This study serves as a baseline for continued inequality monitoring and could help to inform targeted actions for the equitable uptake of vaccines. Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance.

Stability or change? Social inequality at the transition from bachelor’s to master’s degree programmes in Germany. Empirical evidence from four graduate cohorts

For German higher education, the introduction of a two-cycle study structure resulted in a new transition stage after the completion of the bachelor’s degree. In contrast to some other countries, this structural change was stretched over a relatively long period. At the same time, the number of students enrolled in higher education has increased substantially. Existing empirical evidence indicates that starting a master’s degree programme is socially selective – in favour of students with tertiary qualified parents. Against this backdrop, we analyse how the level of social inequality at the new transition from the bachelor’s to the master’s level has developed over the course of the past two decades. Drawing on data from large-scale DZHW graduate surveys (graduate cohorts from the years 2005, 2009, 2013, 2017), we are able to replicate previous findings showing considerable social inequality at the transition to the master’s level. However, this inequality could not be detected for the 2005 graduate cohort, the ‘early adopters’. It seems that after an initial period of turmoil and uncertainty in the early stages of the implementation process, established patterns of inequality had re-emerged by the 2009 graduate cohort. We discuss the implications of our results for further research and policy-making.

Negotiating Unequal Exchange: Relational Work in Cross‐Class Sibling Relationships1

Based on 60 in‐depth, semi‐structured interviews, this article examines exchanges of support in cross‐class adult sibling relationships. Whereas previous studies of family exchange have largely focused on parent–child support and patterns of inequality across families, this study addresses a gap in the literature by focusing on sibling exchanges and within‐family inequality. How is support exchanged when expectations of peer equality are violated—when there is an economic difference between adult siblings? I find that cross‐class siblings engage in relational work to shape and reframe exchanges in ways that are more indirect, often involving third parties. I identify four types of indirect economic support—proxy support, dependent support, compensatory support, and shared resources—which contribute to our understanding of the dynamics of sibling exchange, and point to ways in which inequality can be interactionally managed.

Identifying Challenges, Enabling Practices, and Reviewing Existing Policies Regarding Digital Equity and Digital Divide Toward Smart and Healthy Cities: Protocol for an Integrative Review.

Digital equity denotes that all individuals and communities have equitable access to the information technology required to participate in digital life and can fully capitalize on this technology for their individual and community gain and benefits. Recent research highlighted that COVID-19 heightened the existing structural inequities and further exacerbated the technology-related social divide, especially for racialized communities, including new immigrants, refugees, and ethnic minorities. The intersection of challenges associated with racial identity (eg, racial discrimination and cultural differences), socioeconomic marginalization, and age- and gender-related barriers affects their access to health and social services, education, economic activity, and social life owing to digital inequity. Our aim is to understand the current state of knowledge on digital equity and the digital divide (which is often considered a complex social-political challenge) among racialized communities in urban cities of high-income countries and how they impact the social interactions, economic activities, and mental well-being of racialized city dwellers. We will conduct an integrative review adapting the Whittemore and Knafl methodology to summarize past empirical or theoretical literature describing digital equity issues pertaining to urban racialized communities. The context will be limited to studies on multicultural cities in high-income countries (eg, Calgary, Alberta) in the last 10 years. We will use a comprehensive search of 8 major databases across multiple disciplines and gray literature (eg, Google Scholar), using appropriate search terms related to digital "in/equity" and "divide." A 2-stage screening will be conducted, including single citation tracking and a hand search of reference lists. Results will be synthesized using thematic analysis guidelines. As of August 25, 2022, we have completed a systematic search of 8 major academic databases from multiple disciplines, gray literature, and citation or hand searching. After duplicate removal, we identified 8647 articles from all sources. Two independent reviewers are expected to complete the 2-step screening (title, abstract, and full-text screening) using Covidence followed by data extraction and analysis in 4 months (by December 2022). Data will be extracted regarding digital equity-related initiatives, programs, activities, research findings, issues, barriers, policies, recommendations, etc. Thematic analysis will reveal how barriers and facilitators of digital equity affect or benefit racialized population groups and what social, material, and systemic issues need to be addressed to establish digital equity for racialized communities in the context of a multicultural city. This project will inform public policy about digital inequity alongside conventional systemic inequities (eg, education and income levels); promote digital equity by exploring and examining the pattern, extent, and determinants and barriers of digital inequity across sociodemographic variables and groups; and analyze its interconnectedness with spatial dimensions and variations of the urban sphere (geographic differences). DERR1-10.2196/40068.

The impact of ridesourcing on equity and sustainability in North American cities: A systematic review of the literature

Research on ridesourcing has grown exponentially in recent years. This study details the results of a systematic review of 161 publications on ridesourcing that explore environmental sustainability and equity in North American cities. We identify five main areas of research. First, ridesourcing is associated with two modal shifts: a decline of the taxi industry and a more complicated association with public transit ridership. Second, several studies have documented workers' rights and the challenges of contingent labor. Third, demographic studies show associations between ridesouring and affluent riders, and spatial analyses indicate that ridesourcing may exacerbate existing patterns of inequity in cities. Fourth, ridesourcing has dubious claims to improve environmental sustainability: it has only a small effect on vehicle ownership, but it increases emissions associated with deadheading, and pooled services do not reduce vehicle miles traveled. Fifth, ridesourcing companies also tend to oppose regulatory responses and sharing data with potential regulators. The review concludes with suggestions on areas for future research.

Trends and patterns of inequalities in using facility delivery among reproductive-age women in Bangladesh: a decomposition analysis of 2007–2017 Demographic and Health Survey data

ObjectivesThe prime objectives of the study were to measure the prevalence of facility delivery, assess socioeconomic inequalities and determine potential associated factors in the use of facility delivery in Bangladesh.DesignCross-sectional.SettingThe...

United in Patriarchy? A View from across the (Aegean) Pond

United in Patriarchy? A View from across the (Aegean) Pond

Determinants of inequality in health care seeking for childhood illnesses: insights from Nairobi informal settlements

BackgroundAn in-depth understanding of patterns of inequities in healthcare seeking among the urban residents is critical in identifying appropriate interventions strategies. The study evaluates determinants of inequality in health care seeking for childhood illnesses among informal settlement residents in Nairobi, Kenya. MethodsData from the second Nairobi Cross-Sectional Slum Survey (NCSS 2012) was examined. The inequality in seeking health care for childhood diarrhea as the prototype illness was assessed using concentration index (CI). The wealth index based on the household possessions and amenities was used as a measure for socioeconomic status. ResultsA total of 2 027 qualified women were included in this study. About 16.6% of children born of younger mothers aged < 20 years had diarrhea and a similar proportion of children (16.3%) was observed among mothers who were unemployed. The CI of −0.026 on health care seeking for diarrhea among children points to significant inequality among the urban poor (95% confidence interval: −0.028 to −0.023). ConclusionOccupation of parents, age of mothers, ethnicity, marital status and children's age were major determinants with regard to disease outcome and to a broader extent inequality in health care seeking for childhood illnesses. Enhanced bottom top community health invigoration strategies in health information awareness and services access would be instrumental.

Vanishing social classes? Facts and figures of the Italian labour market

This paper analyses medium-term labour market trends from 1983 to 2018 in Italy relying on the “Rilevazione dei contratti di lavoro” from INPS archive which provides information on average salaries by professional category, age, gender, and geographical origin. Within an overall pattern of exacerbated wage inequalities, documented by means of different indicators, the empirical analysis highlights how the within-component of the wage variation prevails in the gender, age and geographical dimensions. By contrast, the between-component in terms of professional categories (trainees, blue-collar jobs, white-collar jobs, middle managers, executives) is the only between-variation attribute to prevail, corroborating the role played by a reduced class schema, excluding capitalists and the self-employed, in explaining wage inequality. Regression-based inequality estimations confirm the role played by managerial remuneration, the contradictory located class, in driving divergent patterns. Stratification of wage losses is recorded to be largely concentrated among blue-collar professional categories, women, youth, and in Southern regions.