Paternal Stress Research Articles

Interferon Regulatory Factor 6 (IRF6) and Gene – Environment Interactions in Non-Syndromic Orofacial Cleft Cases in Saudi Arabia-A Case Control Study

The association between interferon regulatory factor 6 (IRF6) and nonsyndromic orofacial cleft (NSOFC) is affected by ethnicity. Also, gene-environment interactions (GEI) may play an important role in its etiology.Objectives: This case-control study investigated whether IRF6 gene variants were associated with NSOFC in Saudi Arabian population and whether the gene was affected by maternal environmental exposures.Methods: We extracted DNA from saliva samples obtained from 171 infant–parent triad cases and 189 matched controls (age, gender, and location) from January 2010–December 2011; this study included a total of 11 referral hospitals in Saudi Arabia. IRF6 (rs2013162, rs2235375, and rs2235371) polymorphisms were genotyped using restriction-digestion polymerase chain reaction. Data on environmental exposures, for GEI analyses, were collected through questionnaire-led interviews with parents.Results: We found statistically significant over transmission of the common IRF6 rs2013162 allele among cleft lip with or without palate CL(P) cases. No associations were found for either of the other two IRF6 SNPs. Maternal exposure to antipyretics, folic acid, fever, antibiotics, illnesses, common cold/flu, paternal water pipe smoking, stress, x-rays, and/or chemicals could significantly interact with the maternal IRF6 (rs2013162 and rs2235375) gene variants, affecting the likelihood of having an offspring with NSOFC.Conclusion: The common allele at IRF6 rs2013162 was significantly over transmitted among CL(P) cases. This study provides hypotheses for future investigations into genetic and environmental factors and their interaction in the etiology of NSOFC.

Premature birth: complexities and difficulties in building the mother–child relationship

Aim: This paper aims to investigate if the dyadic interactive behaviours were influenced by parental stress and feelings both in preterm and full-term mother–child dyads.Methods: 45 mothers (age = 35.29 ± 5.38) and fathers (age = 36.77 ± 6.89) of preterm infants (GA = 30.25 ± 2.95; BW = 1288.02 ± 488.76), and 36 mothers (age = 32.60 ± 4.56) and fathers (age = 35.54 ± 5.16) of full-term (GA = 39.88 ± 1.38; BW = 3156.39 ± 493.81) were involved. Parents filled out the Impact of Event Scale Revised (IES-R), Profile of Mood States (POMS) and Parenting Stress Index Short Form (PSI-SF) and interactive behaviours (Global Rating Scale) was videotaped after 3 months.Results: Mothers of preterm children showed higher level of Intrusiveness (Mpreterm = 4.07 ± .74, Mfullterm = 4.39 ± .51, t = 2.22, p = .029) and Remoteness (Mpreterm = 4.45 ± .83, Mfullterm = 4.79 ± .34, t = 2.51, p = .015) than mothers of term children. In preterm mothers’ lower levels of Sensitivity, higher levels of Intrusiveness, Remoteness and Depression are associated with the presence of negative feelings and parental stress in both parents. Moreover, higher children Distress is associated to parental negative feelings, paternal stress and post-traumatic symptoms. A higher score of parental negative feelings and parental stress predicted lower scores in Global RatingScale dimensions.Conclusions: Our results underline that preterm birth could be a risk factor for the co-construction of interactive exchanges between mother and premature baby. This study could help practitioners to better consider parental roles and to carry out specific supportive interventions for both parents and children.

Children\u2019s mental health problems and their relation to parental stress in foster mothers and fathers

BackgroundThis study focuses on children living in foster families with a history of maltreatment or neglect. These children often show adverse mental health outcomes reflected in increased externalizing and internalizing problems. It is expected that these adverse outcomes are associated with increased parental stress levels experienced by foster mothers as well as foster fathers.MethodsThe study sample included 79 children living in foster families and 140 children living in biological families as comparison group. The age of the children ranged from 2 to 7 years. Mental health problems were assessed with the Child Behavior Checklist, while parenting stress was measured with a parenting stress questionnaire including subscales on the amount of experienced stress and the amount of perceived support. The Child Behavior Checklist assessments were based mainly on maternal reports, while the parental stress assessments were based on maternal as well as paternal reports.ResultsAs expected the results showed increased externalizing and internalizing scores for the foster children accompanied by increased parental stress experiences in the foster family sample (however only in the maternal, but not in the paternal stress reports). The stress differences between the foster and biological family groups disappeared, when the children’s mental health problem scores were included as covariates. Moreover, especially the externalizing scores were strong predictors of parental stress in both, the groups of foster and biological parents. The amount of perceived social support was associated with reduced parental stress, but only in the group of biological fathers.ConclusionThe emergence of parental stress in biological as well as foster parents is closely related to child characteristics (mainly externalizing child problems). Possible implications for the reduction of parental stress are discussed as a consequence of the present results.

C. elegans SUP-46, an HNRNPM family RNA-binding protein that prevents paternally-mediated epigenetic sterility

BackgroundIn addition to DNA, gametes contribute epigenetic information in the form of histones and non-coding RNA. Epigenetic programs often respond to stressful environmental conditions and provide a heritable history of ancestral stress that allows for adaptation and propagation of the species. In the nematode C. elegans, defective epigenetic transmission often manifests as progressive germline mortality. We previously isolated sup-46 in a screen for suppressors of the hexosamine pathway gene mutant, gna-2(qa705). In this study, we examine the role of SUP-46 in stress resistance and progressive germline mortality.ResultsWe identified SUP-46 as an HNRNPM family RNA-binding protein, and uncovered a highly novel role for SUP-46 in preventing paternally-mediated progressive germline mortality following mating. Proximity biotinylation profiling of human homologs (HNRNPM, MYEF2) identified proteins of ribonucleoprotein complexes previously shown to contain non-coding RNA. Like HNRNPM and MYEF2, SUP-46 was associated with multiple RNA granules, including stress granules, and also formed granules on active chromatin. SUP-46 depletion disrupted germ RNA granules and caused ectopic sperm, increased sperm transcripts, and chronic heat stress sensitivity. SUP-46 was also required for resistance to acute heat stress, and a conserved “MYEF2” motif was identified that was needed for stress resistance.ConclusionsIn mammals, non-coding RNA from the sperm of stressed males has been shown to recapitulate paternal stress phenotypes in the offspring. Our results suggest that HNRNPM family proteins enable stress resistance and paternally-mediated epigenetic transmission that may be conserved across species.

아버지의 심리적 스트레스와 양육스트레스 및 양육 행동이 유아의 문제행동에 미치는 영향

아버지의 심리적 스트레스와 양육스트레스 및 양육 행동이 유아의 문제행동에 미치는 영향

Elevated paternal glucocorticoid exposure modifies memory retention in female offspring

Recent studies have demonstrated that behavioral traits are subject to transgenerational modification by paternal environmental factors. We previously reported on the transgenerational influences of increased paternal stress hormone levels on offspring anxiety and depression-related behaviors. Here, we investigated whether offspring sociability and cognition are also influenced by paternal stress. Adult C57BL/6J male mice were treated with corticosterone (CORT; 25mg/L) for four weeks prior to paired-matings to generate F1 offspring. Paternal CORT treatment was associated with decreased body weights of female offspring and a marked reduction of the male offspring. There were no differences in social behavior of adult F1 offspring in the three-chamber social interaction test. Despite male offspring of CORT-treated fathers displaying hyperactivity in the Y-maze, there was no observable difference in short-term spatial working memory. Spatial learning and memory testing in the Morris water maze revealed that female, but not male, F1 offspring of CORT-treated fathers had impaired memory retention. We used our recently developed methodology to analyze the spatial search strategy of the mice during the learning trials and determined that the impairment could not be attributed to underlying differences in search strategy. These results provide evidence for the impact of paternal corticosterone administration on offspring cognition and complement the cumulative knowledge of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance of acquired traits in rodents and humans.

Mothers and fathers facing their children’s phenylketonuria

ABSTRACTThe aim of this study is to understand the impact of children’s phenylketonuria (PKU) on mothers and fathers and to assess the mutual influence of the psychological functioning of one parent on the other. 33 mothers and 33 fathers of PKU-affected children and 43 mothers and 43 fathers of non-PKU-affected children were involved. All of the parents filled out the Los Angeles Symptoms Checklist, the Profile of Mood Scale, the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form, and the Coping Health Inventory for Parents. We performed parametric intergroup analysis and multiple regressions. Results pointed out that there is a link between maternal stress and maternal negative states of mind, trauma-related symptoms, and paternal coping strategies. As regards fathers, there is a link between paternal stress and maternal trauma-related symptoms. Our findings suggest it will be important to better investigate the role played by paternal response in supporting mothers of a chronically ill child, since they confirm the importance of taking into account the points of view of both mothers and fathers and their mutual influences in responding to PKU diagnosis.

Hippocampal NR3C1 DNA methylation can mediate part of preconception paternal stress effects in rat offspring

Many studies have been shown that maternal stress during pregnancy and in early life period influences offspring in the behavioral and molecular aspects in human and animal models. Recent research has indicated that the environmental condition of males before conception has effects on next generations. We evaluated whether preconception paternal stress (PPS) could influence on hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor gene (GR), (NR3C1) expression, corticosterone response and behavioral outcomes of their offspring. For this purpose, adult male rats were subjected to daily 10min session of forced swimming for 21 consecutive days. Then, two parental breeding groups were formed: stressed father (SF) and non-stressed father (NSF) or control group. 30-day-old pups were tested for anxiety-like behavior by using the elevated plus maze (EPM). Serum corticosterone level was also measured by ELISA. Hippocampal NR3C1 DNA methylation, gene and protein expression were respectively assayed by methylation sensitive restriction enzymes (Real Time PCR), Reverse Transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) and Western-blotting in all groups. More anxiety-related behavior, serum corticosterone concentration, DNA methylation levels of NR3C1 and lower expression of this gene were significantly observed in paternally stressed pups compared to control pups. As well, molecular changes were more pronounced in male pups compared to female pups. Our results revealed that paternal stress prior to conception has a negative effect on molecular, hormonal and behavioral outcomes in their offspring.

The role of prenatal, obstetric, and post-partum factors in the parenting stress of mothers and fathers of 9-month old infants

Introduction: The aim of this paper was to examine the role of perinatal, obstetric and post partum factors on maternal and paternal stress. It will present the first examination of the role of prenatal, obstetric, post-partum, and demographic variables in parenting stress for mothers and fathers at 9 months.Methods: Data from 6821 parental dyads of 9-month-old infants were extracted from the Growing Up in Ireland National Longitudinal Study of Children. Participants completed the Parental Stress Scale, the Dyadic Adjustment Scale, the Quality of Attachment Sub-scale from the Maternal and Paternal Postnatal Attachment Scales, and a single item health status question from the Short Form 12 Health Survey. Information on prenatal care, pregnancy complications, obstetric outcomes, infant health, and participant demographics were also collected. Separate hierarchical linear regressions were conducted for mothers and fathersResults: Mothers reported higher levels of parenting stress than fathers (p < 0.001). Maternal parenting stress was predicted by attachment, own health status, average sleep, occupation, household income, and having a very rapid labor. Paternal parenting stress was predicted by attachment and own health status.Discussion: A range of perinatal factors was associated with an increased risk of higher parenting stress at 9 months post-partum and the roles of these factors differ between mothers and fathers. These findings are important for predicting and reducing risk of parenting stress in both genders.

Fathers\u2019 views and experiences of their own mental health during pregnancy and the first postnatal year: a qualitative interview study of men participating in the UK Born and Bred in Yorkshire (BaBY) cohort

BackgroundThe prevalence of fathers’ depression and anxiety in the perinatal period (i.e. from conception to 1 year after birth) is approximately 5–10%, and 5–15%, respectively; their children face increased risk of adverse emotional and behavioural outcomes, independent of maternal mental health. Critically, fathers can be protective against the development of maternal perinatal mental health problems and their effects on child outcomes. Preventing and treating paternal mental health problems and promoting paternal psychological wellbeing may therefore benefit the family as a whole. This study examined fathers’ views and direct experiences of paternal perinatal mental health.MethodsMen in the Born and Bred in Yorkshire (BaBY) epidemiological prospective cohort who met eligibility criteria (baby born <12 months; completed Mental Health and Wellbeing [MHWB] questionnaires) were invited to participate. Those expressing interest (n = 42) were purposively sampled to ensure diversity of MHWB scores. In-depth interviews were conducted at 5–10 months postpartum with 19 men aged 25–44 years. The majority were first-time fathers and UK born; all lived with their partner. Data were analysed using thematic analysis.ResultsFour themes were identified: ‘legitimacy of paternal stress and entitlement to health professionals’ support’, ‘protecting the partnership’, ‘navigating fatherhood’, and, ‘diversity of men’s support networks’. Men largely described their ‘stress’ with reference to exhaustion, poor concentration and irritability. Despite feeling excluded by maternity services, fathers questioned their entitlement to support, noting that services are pressured and ‘should’ be focused on mothers. Men emphasised the need to support their partner and protect their partnership as central to the successfully navigation of fatherhood; they used existing support networks where available but noted the paucity of tailored support for fathers.ConclusionsFathers experience psychological distress in the perinatal period but question the legitimacy of their experiences. Men may thus be reluctant to express their support needs or seek help amid concerns that to do so would detract from their partner’s needs. Resources are needed that are tailored to men, framed around fatherhood, rather than mental health or mental illness, and align men’s self-care with their role as supporter and protector. Further research is needed to inform how best to identify and manage both parents’ mental health needs and promote their psychological wellbeing, in the context of achievable models of service delivery.

Paternal environmental enrichment transgenerationally alters affective behavioral and neuroendocrine phenotypes

Recent studies have demonstrated that paternal stress in rodents can result in modification of offspring behavior. Environmental enrichment, which enhances cognitive stimulation and physical activity, modifies various behaviors and reduces stress responses in adult rodents. We investigated the transgenerational influence of paternal environmental enrichment on offspring behavior and physiological stress response. Adult C57BL/6J male mice (F0) were exposed to either environmental enrichment or standard housing for four weeks and then pair-mated with naïve females. The F2 generation was generated using F1 male offspring. Male and female F1 and F2 offspring were tested for anxiety using the elevated-plus maze and large open field at 8 weeks of age. Depression-related behavior was assessed using the forced-swim test. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function was determined by quantification of serum corticosterone and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) levels at baseline and after forced-swim stress. Paternal environmental enrichment was associated with increased body weights of male F1 and F2 offspring. There was no significant effect on F1 offspring anxiety and depression-related behaviors. There were no changes in anxiety-related behaviors in the F2 offspring, however these mice displayed a reduced latency to immobility in the forced-swim test. Furthermore, F2 females had significantly higher serum corticosterone levels post-stress, but not ACTH. These results show that paternal environmental enrichment exerts a sex-specific transgenerational impact on the behavioral and physiological response to stress. Our findings have implications for the modelling of psychiatric disorders in rodents.

Effects of Paternal Predation Risk and Rearing Environment on Maternal Investment and Development of Defensive Responses in the Offspring.

Detecting past experiences with predators of a potential mate informs a female about prevailing ecological threats, in addition to stress-induced phenotypes that may be disseminated to offspring. We examined whether prior exposure of a male rat to a predator (cat) odor influences the attraction of a female toward a male, subsequent mother–infant interactions and the development of defensive (emotional) responses in the offspring. Females displayed less interest in males that had experienced predator odor. Mothers that reared young in larger, seminaturalistic housing provided more licking and grooming and active arched back-nursing behavior toward their offspring compared with dams housed in standard housing, although some effects interacted with paternal experience. Paternal predation risk and maternal rearing environment revealed sex-dependent differences in offspring wean weight, juvenile social interactions, and anxiety-like behavior in adolescence. Additionally, paternal predator experience and maternal housing independently affected variations in crf gene promoter acetylation and crf gene expression in response to an acute stressor in offspring. Our results show for the first time in mammals that variation among males in their predator encounters may contribute to stable behavioral variation among females in preference for mates and maternal care, even when the females are not directly exposed to predator threat. Furthermore, when offspring were exposed to the same threat experienced by the father, hypothalamic crf gene regulation was influenced by paternal olfactory experience and early housing. These results, together with our previous findings, suggest that paternal stress exposure and maternal rearing conditions can influence maternal behavior and the development of defensive responses in offspring.

Parents' childhood experiences of bonding and parental psychopathology predict borderline personality disorder during adolescence in offspring.

Previous studies on borderline personality disorder (BPD) development suggest a transgenerational transmission of parent-child relationship quality, which may also be influenced by parents' mental health status. The aim of this study was twofold. First, we aimed to investigate the transgenerational effect of parental bonding experiences on the development of BPD in their offspring. Second, we examined the association between parents' mental health status and BPD in offspring. Ninety-one female adolescent psychiatric inpatients along with 87 mothers and 59 fathers were enrolled in the study. Adolescent BPD was assessed with the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-II, parental bonding with the Parental Bonding Instrument, and parents´ psychiatric symptoms with the Patient Health Questionnaire. We found that low parental care produced a transgenerational effect from mother to BPD in offspring. Further, significant associations were found between paternal psychiatric symptoms and adolescent BPD. High paternal stress levels mediated the association between maternal affect reported by fathers and BPD in daughters. There is evidence of a transgenerational effect of parental bonding specifically for female adolescents with BPD, compared with other clinical control subjects. Our findings highlight the importance of including both parents in future research and in early clinical treatment in adolescents with BPD.

Stress, Coping, and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder of French Fathers of Premature Infants

The aim of this study is to explore and analyze the different patterns of paternal stress, post-traumatic stress symptoms, and coping strategies of a French sample of the NICU of Toulouse. Forty-eight fathers of premature infants (26–35weeks gestational age) participated in this study. Three questionnaires were used: Parental Stress Scale: NICU, PPQ, and CHIP. Principal results show that fathers exhibit high levels of stress, in particular, sights and sounds, and role alteration; as well as a post-traumatic stress symptomatology. They use coping strategies such as family integration and communication with the medical staff in order to balance the stressful situation. Stress symptoms are going to induce PTSD symptoms in approximatively half the cases. However, prematurity level or sociodemographic data do not have a particular effect on the variables.

Perceived Parental Stress and Nursing Support for Fathers of High Risk Infants

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the paternal stress and nursing support as perceived by fathers of high risk infants admitted to Neonatal Intensive Care Units (NICU). Methods: The study participants included 88 fathers of high risk infants in NICUs. Their parental stress and nursing support were measured using a self-report questionnaire. Results: The parental stress level of the fathers was 3.57 of a possible 5. Among the parental stress items, ‘Relationship with infant and parental role’ had the highest scores. The perceived nursing support level was a relatively high, 3.90 on a 5-point scale. The lowest score was for the item ‘showed concern about my well-being.’ The parental stress was lower in fathers with low income, higher in fathers in nuclear families and when the infants’ condition was serious. Conclusion: The findings indicate that fathers of high risk infants experience intense parental stress. Thus when designing care to provide support for these fathers and their infants, it is necessary to encourage the fathers’ engagement, provide information on how to respond to the baby, and include supportive care to the fathers.

Perinatal Parenting Stress, Anxiety, and Depression Outcomes in First-Time Mothers and Fathers: A 3- to 6-Months Postpartum Follow-Up Study.

Objective: Although there is an established link between parenting stress, postnatal depression, and anxiety, no study has yet investigated this link in first-time parental couples. The specific aims of this study were 1) to investigate whether there were any differences between first-time fathers’ and mothers’ postnatal parenting stress, anxiety, and depression symptoms and to see their evolution between three and 6 months after their child’s birth; and 2) to explore how each parent’s parenting stress and anxiety levels and the anxiety levels and depressive symptoms of their partners contributed to parental postnatal depression.Method: The sample included 362 parents (181 couples; mothers’ MAge = 35.03, SD = 4.7; fathers’ MAge = 37.9, SD = 5.6) of healthy babies. At three (T1) and 6 months (T2) postpartum, both parents filled out, in a counterbalanced order, the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form, the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.Results: The analyses showed that compared to fathers, mothers reported higher scores on postpartum anxiety, depression, and parenting stress. The scores for all measures for both mothers and fathers decreased from T1 to T2. However, a path analysis suggested that the persistence of both maternal and paternal postnatal depression was directly influenced by the parent’s own levels of anxiety and parenting stress and by the presence of depression in his/her partner.Discussion: This study highlights the relevant impact and effects of both maternal and paternal stress, anxiety, and depression symptoms during the transition to parenthood. Therefore, to provide efficacious, targeted, early interventions, perinatal screening should be directed at both parents.

Elevated paternal glucocorticoid exposure alters the small noncoding RNA profile in sperm and modifies anxiety and depressive phenotypes in the offspring.

Recent studies have suggested that physiological and behavioral traits may be transgenerationally inherited through the paternal lineage, possibly via non-genomic signals derived from the sperm. To investigate how paternal stress might influence offspring behavioral phenotypes, a model of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis dysregulation was used. Male breeders were administered water supplemented with corticosterone (CORT) for 4 weeks before mating with untreated female mice. Female, but not male, F1 offspring of CORT-treated fathers displayed altered fear extinction at 2 weeks of age. Only male F1 offspring exhibited altered patterns of ultrasonic vocalization at postnatal day 3 and, as adults, showed decreased time in open on the elevated-plus maze and time in light on the light–dark apparatus, suggesting a hyperanxiety-like behavioral phenotype due to paternal CORT treatment. Interestingly, expression of the paternally imprinted gene Igf2 was increased in the hippocampus of F1 male offspring but downregulated in female offspring. Male and female F2 offspring displayed increased time spent in the open arm of the elevated-plus maze, suggesting lower levels of anxiety compared with control animals. Only male F2 offspring showed increased immobility time on the forced-swim test and increased latency to feed on the novelty-supressed feeding test, suggesting a depression-like phenotype in these animals. Collectively, these data provide evidence that paternal CORT treatment alters anxiety and depression-related behaviors across multiple generations. Analysis of the small RNA profile in sperm from CORT-treated males revealed marked effects on the expression of small noncoding RNAs. Sperm from CORT-treated males contained elevated levels of three microRNAs, miR-98, miR-144 and miR-190b, which are predicted to interact with multiple growth factors, including Igf2 and Bdnf. Sustained elevation of glucocorticoids is therefore involved in the transmission of paternal stress-induced traits across generations in a process involving small noncoding RNA signals transmitted by the male germline.

WHEN MUM IS STRESSED, IS DAD JUST AS STRESSED? PREDICTORS OF PATERNAL STRESS IN THE FIRST SIX MONTHS OF HAVING A BABY.

The primary aim of this study was to examine predictors of paternal stress within the first 6 months of having a baby in a normative Australian sample, and to compare paternal and maternal stress. In total, 54 fathers and 71 mothers completed self-report measures of postnatal depressive symptoms, parenting stress, efficacy, responsiveness, attachment, and family and social support. Paired sample t test revealed a significant relationship within couples in their level of parenting stress. Fathers reported lower levels of postnatal depression, responsiveness, and attachment than did mothers. Fathers rated their level of social support to be higher than did mothers. Regression analyses indicated that responsiveness and efficacy significantly predicted paternal stress whereas responsiveness and attachment predicted maternal stress when history of psychological diagnosis and financial stability were controlled for. Results have implications for early preventive parenting programs.

Transgenerational epigenetic programming via sperm microRNA recapitulates effects of paternal stress.

Epigenetic signatures in germ cells, capable of both responding to the parental environment and shaping offspring neurodevelopment, are uniquely positioned to mediate transgenerational outcomes. However, molecular mechanisms by which these marks may communicate experience-dependent information across generations are currently unknown. In our model of chronic paternal stress, we previously identified nine microRNAs (miRs) that were increased in the sperm of stressed sires and associated with reduced hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) stress axis reactivity in offspring. In the current study, we rigorously examine the hypothesis that these sperm miRs function postfertilization to alter offspring stress responsivity and, using zygote microinjection of the nine specific miRs, demonstrated a remarkable recapitulation of the offspring stress dysregulation phenotype. Further, we associated long-term reprogramming of the hypothalamic transcriptome with HPA axis dysfunction, noting a marked decreased in the expression of extracellular matrix and collagen gene sets that may reflect an underlying change in blood-brain barrier permeability. We conclude by investigating the developmental impact of sperm miRs in early zygotes with single-cell amplification technology, identifying the targeted degradation of stored maternal mRNA transcripts including sirtuin 1 and ubiquitin protein ligase E3a, two genes with established function in chromatin remodeling, and this potent regulatory function of miRs postfertilization likely initiates a cascade of molecular events that eventually alters stress reactivity. Overall, these findings demonstrate a clear mechanistic role for sperm miRs in the transgenerational transmission of paternal lifetime experiences.

Perceived stress of Jordanian parents: A comparative study between mothers and fathers

Objective : To investigate perceived stress levels of Jordanian parents and compare their levels of stress in form of couples. Background: Being a parent is a stressful experience for both parents. Gender and cultural background of the parent has an effect on stress perception. However, there is limited research in the Arabic countries on the differences between parents in their stress level from the cultural perspective. Methods : The study is based on a sample of 528 couples that have healthy children in Jordan. Parents completed a demographic checklist and a perceived stress scale. Results : There was a significant difference in stress levels between mothers and fathers, with mothers having significantly higher stress scores. The mean stress score for mothers was 17.94 (SD = 6.41) compared with 15.13 (SD = 7.12) for fathers, p < .001. The eta squared statistic = 0.16 indicated a large effect size. A Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient showed that there was a positive correlation between maternal and paternal stress levels ( r = 0.574, n = 528, p < .001). Conclusions : The study concluded that parenting children is stressful for both parents; and that in couples parental stress levels correlated with each other. Implications for nursing: Investigating differences in stress between mothers and fathers in Jordan may be helpful when designing interventions to reduce stress and an individual parental support programme may be needed to buffer their stress.