Past Industrial Activities Research Articles

The Role of Petroleum Geochemistry in Defining Oil Spill Recovery: Examples from the Exxon Valdez Spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska

ABSTRACT The application of petroleum geochemistry to determining the fate and effects of oil spills in the marine environment requires high quality data to allow source identification through fingerprinting methods and unbiased sampling designs that allow valid comparisons to be made to detect spill related effects in the presence of other sources of environmental stress. This is particularly important in long-term studies, where sources of hydrocarbons and other pollutants unrelated to the spill event and non-spill related environmental effects become far more important in defining the environmental status of the spill zone. In studies of the Exxon Valdez oil spill, petroleum geochemistry is used to identify the many sources contributing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) to the marine environment of Prince William Sound (PWS), including the Exxon Valdez oil spill, oil seep residues, particulates from eroding organic shales and coal formations, forest fire fallout, recent biogenic inputs and past human and industrial activities. A sediment quality triad-based shoreline ecology program (SEP), begun in 1990, includes a random sampling component and worst-case non-random site component that provides chemistry data through 2001 to determine the fate and bioavailability of spill oil residues on the shorelines. Environmental half-life values for the PAH at oiled sites range from 2.0 – 7.4 months for upper intertidal areas. Analysis of mussel tissue samples collected at worst-case spill locations find PAH concentrations in the same range as reference site samples. The results of concurrent sediment toxicity measurements using standard bioassays defines a dose-response relationship for total PAH concentration (TPAH) having a threshold of effect TPAH of 2,600 ng/g (dry wt.) that agrees well with the onset of sublethal ecological stress as defined by reductions in infaunal community structure parameters.

Brownfields in Historical Context

The notion of a brownfield brings to mind sites littered with the remains of past industrial activity: crumbling buildings, frozen machinery, and railroad tracks overgrown with weeds. To anybody interested in an area's history and cultural heritage, such sites can be potential treasures (Brown, 2001; Quivik, 2001). But to others, especially city officials struggling to maintain a solid tax base and neighbors worried about safety and property values, these sites are more likely to be seen as blights on the landscape, pieces of industrial property that have been used, discarded, and left for another generation to deal with (Jakle and Wilson, 1992). Unlike “greenfields,” vacant pieces of property that have never been developed, brownfields come with the risk of contamination and the costs of demolition and cleanup.

Heavy metal immobilization in the mining-contaminated soils using various industrial wastes

The remediation of contaminated sites, legacies of past industrial activities, requires more or less complex and costly measures depending on the nature and extent of contamination, the environmental protection legislation currently in force, the anticipated future use and the commercial value of the land. Remedial action involves implementing techniques capable of removing or containing the contaminants to prevent them from migrating to surrounding areas. Here we explore the possibility of using red muds, bauxite ore processing waste, and/or fly ash produced by coal fired power stations for immobilizing the heavy metals contained in severely contaminated soils. The results of laboratory column leaching demonstrate that relatively small additions of fly ash or red muds, or a combination of the two, to the contaminated soils drastically reduces the heavy metal content in the effluent.

The Paradox of Smokeless Fuels: Gas, Coke and the Environment in Britain, 1813-1949

Abstract The contemporary world faces a toxic legacy: environmental contamination caused by past industrial activities. In Britain, a large proportion of the soil and groundwater pollution that occurred during the nineteenth and first half of the twentieth century came from gasworks and coke plants. Paradoxically, many people long viewed them as the answer to the country's pollution problems. Smoke-abatement activists and industry officials argued that gas and coke could be burned without producing the large quantities of particulates and volatile organic compounds that emanated from coal fires. Yet promoters of these 'smokeless fuels' failed to recognise that they did not eliminate environmental problems, but instead shifted them from sites of consumption to those of production. Air pollution declined in many places, but it grew worse in those containing gasworks and coke plants. In addition to displacing pollution geographically, the manufacture of gas and coke displaced it chronologically by creating hazards that would long endure. Today, decades after they ceased production, many of the places where gasworks and coke plants once stood remain contaminated by toxic by-products.

Exposure of Children to Lead and Cadmium from a Mining Area of Brazil

During the past 50 years the Ribeira river valley, in the southern part of the state of São Paulo, Brazil, had been under the influence of the full activity of a huge lead refinery and mine working by the side of the river. The plant completely stopped all kinds of industrial activities at the end of 1995, and part of the worker population and their families still remain living nearby in small communities. The objective of the study was to assess the exposure of children to lead and cadmium in these areas, where residual environmental contamination from the past industrial activity still exists. Blood samples of 295 children aged 7 to 14 years, residing in rural and urban areas around the mine and the refinery, were collected. A questionnaire was given to gather information on food habits, leisure activities, father's past employment, current and former residential places, and other variables. Blood lead and cadmium concentrations were analyzed by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry using Zeeman background correction. Cadmium values obtained in this population were mostly below established quantification limits (0.5 μg/dl). The median of blood lead level (BLL) obtained in children living close to the lead refinery was 11.25 μg/dl, and the median in other mining regions far from the refinery was 4.4 μg/dl. Logistic regression analysis was conducted to examine the independent contribution of selected variables in predicting BLL in these children. The following variables showed significant association with high BLL: residential area close to the lead refinery [odds ratio (OR)=10.38 (95% confidence interval (Cl)=4.86–23.25)], former father's occupational lead exposure [OR=4.07 (95% Cl=1.82–9.24)], and male gender [OR=2.60 (95% Cl=1.24–5.62)].

Historic contamination law empowers civil engineers to clean up

Around 100 000 sites in Britain—a total of 300 000 ha—are contaminated from past industrial activity. Following the completion of a detailed site-identification planning in July 2001, local authorities can now force these sites to be cleaned up under part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990—and the cost may fall to the present occupier if the original polluter cannot be found. Civil engineers stand to benefit significantly, not just from assessing and remediating contaminated sites but also from the much greater level of technical risk-assessment likely to be associated with all future land purchase and development. This paper gives a brief overview of the complex and controversial new regime, and offers some suggestions to overcome some of its more operationally and democratically difficult aspects.

Historic contamination law empowers civil engineers to clean up

Around 100 000 sites in Britain—a total of 300 000 ha—are contaminated from past industrial activity. Following the completion of a detailed site-identification planning in July 2001, local authorities can now force these sites to be cleaned up under part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990—and the cost may fall to the present occupier if the original polluter cannot be found. Civil engineers stand to benefit significantly, not just from assessing and remediating contaminated sites but also from the much greater level of technical risk-assessment likely to be associated with all future land purchase and development. This paper gives a brief overview of the complex and controversial new regime, and offers some suggestions to overcome some of its more operationally and democratically difficult aspects.

Sulfur speciation in mercury-contaminated sediments of a coastal lagoon: the role of elemental sulfur.

Chemical equilibrium studies have predicted that elemental sulfur (S0) could play a crucial role in mercury mobility in salt marsh sediments. This prompted us to consider the occurrence of S0 in conjunction with the degree of contamination in sediments of a coastal wetland (Pialassa Baiona, Italy) impacted by inputs of mercury derived from past industrial activity. The distribution of S0, total Hg, soluble sulfates and acid-soluble sulfides was studied in five sediment cores collected in two ponds of the lagoon. Sulfides, sulfates and S0 exhibited vertical profiles typical of salt marsh systems, with concentrations declining with depth. Mercury enrichment (2-23 mg kg-1) was detected at the surface strata where the highest concentrations of sulfides and S0 were found (up to 1.70 and 0.9 g kg-1, respectively). The effect of elevated levels of sulfides and elemental sulfur on the fate of mercury in the lagoon is discussed.

Analysis of poly(vinyl chloride) and other polymers in sediments and suspended matter of a coastal lagoon by pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

Pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS) was used for the analysis of synthetic polymers in core sediments and suspended particulate matter (SPM) of the coastal lagoon Pialassa Baiona (Adriatic Sea). Pyrograms exhibited a multitude of peaks deriving from the thermal degradation of natural organic matter (humic substances, planktonic material), artificial resins and synthetic rubbers. Upon pyrolysis, sediments generated high levels of styrene and benzene and a series of aromatic hydrocarbons (α-methylstyrene, indene, naphthalenes, biphenyl, diphenylpropane) indicative of the presence of vinyl polymers (e.g. poly(vinyl chloride), polystyrene), whereas markers for rubbers (butadiene dimer, styrene-butadiene) were identified in pyrograms of SPM. Concentrations of styrene polymers (expressed as polystyrene, PS) and poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) were estimated in sediment cores by Py-GC-MS using the evolved benzene and styrene for quantitation, and values greater than 1 mg/g were observed in the most polluted layers. Plastic materials were isolated from sediments by Soxhlet-extraction with dichloromethane followed by precipitation in n-hexane and analysed by Py-GC-MS and spectroscopic techniques ( 1H- and 13C-NMR spectroscopy, FTIR). PVC made up the bulk of the isolated polymers which were found at concentrations up to 55 mg/g. PVC concentrations determined by both methods (direct pyrolysis and polymer extraction), showed maxima in subsurface strata and were strongly correlated with Hg concentrations. This finding suggests that the presence of resins is due to past industrial activity, even though the identification of styrene-plastic rubbers in SPM indicates that polymers are still redistributed and/or discharged into the lagoon.

Uptake and Trophic Transfer of Barium in a Terrestrial Ecosystem

At an industrial site in central Virginia, organochlorine solvents and inorganic compounds with the potential to adversely affect wildlife have been released into the environment as a consequence of past industrial activities and practices. In the course of a ecological risk assessment for the site, soil, surface water, vegetation, insect, fish, and small mammal tissues were analyzed to ascertain whether these contaminants were bioavailable and present in the food chain. Although organochlorine solvents were found in the soil, none were found higher in the food chain. Of the inorganic compounds for which chemical analyses were performed, only barium was found at above detection limits at several level trophic levels. Four hypotheses were formed to investigate the behavior of barium in the terrestrial ecosystem at this site, as follows:

The legacy of aquifer pollution by industrial chemicals: technical appraisal and policy implications

Abstract The problem of groundwater contamination by the common chlorinated industrial solvents is becoming increasingly apparent in Britain. Pollution is known to have occurred widely as a result of casual or accidental discharge of such chemicals over many decades. Two case histories demonstrate that the combination of solvent physicochemical properties and Chalk hydrogeological characteristics can result in both extensive transport and extreme persistence in this aquifer. Adequately proving the source of groundwater contamination is onerous. Individual pollution problems are equally likely to be the legacy of past industrial activity as the effect of current industrial practice. At least in its most direct sense this renders the ‘polluter-pays’ principle ineffective. The situation is further complicated by the technical difficulty, excessive cost and inadequate definition of aquifer restoration. Modifications and clarifications to policy are required to provide a more rational basis for the alleviation of this ground-water pollution problem.

ARE THE COSTS OF CLEANING UP EASTERN EUROPE EXAGGERATED? ECONOMIC REFORM AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Widespread concern has been expressed that the costs of reducing environmental pollution in Eastern Europe will divert substantial investment resources from the pool available for industrial modernization. In fact, apart from a number of severely damaged areas, the general level of exposure to major pollutants in Eastern Europe is not high by comparison with the OECD countries. Even without specific environmental policies the process of general economic reform combined with energy conservation induced by higher energy prices will reduce emissions by nearly 50 percent. A modest fraction of general investment in industrial modernization will deal with the remaining problems of current emissions provided that sensible systems of environmental charges are enforced. The countries will then be faced with the problem of cleaning up the debris of past industrial activity which can be tackled over an extended period of years as in other industrial economies. Copyright 1991 by Oxford University Press.

The Industrial Archaeology of Regions of the British Isles: No.2 Hampshire

Hampshire's maritime situation has governed much of its past industrial activity. Naval shipbuilding generated industries ranging from iron production to the manufacture of ship's biscuits, while port and dock facilities dominate much of its coastline. Agricultural processing industries like milling and brewing were important in an otherwise largely rural county, while brickmaking had a more than local impact. Today, a number of active societies ensure the preservation of a distinctive industrial heritage.

The Industrial Archaeology of Regions of the British Isles: No.2 Hampshire

Hampshire's maritime situation has governed much of its past industrial activity. Naval shipbuilding generated industries ranging from iron production to the manufacture of ship's biscuits, while port and dock facilities dominate much of its coastline. Agricultural processing industries like milling and brewing were important in an otherwise largely rural county, while brickmaking had a more than local impact. Today, a number of active societies ensure the preservation of a distinctive industrial heritage.