Passive Observations Research Articles

Large warming of tropical convective anvils masked by their underlying clouds

Deep convective clouds (DCCs) are crucial in the Earth's energy budget. Although the abundant DCC-generated ice-phase anvil and cirrus theoretically have a warming effect, the reported observations of their cloud radiative effect (CRE) by previous studies are unexpectedly negative. Here, we find that the apparent contradiction between theory and observations resulted from neglecting the radiative contribution of background underlying clouds based on the five-years active and passive satellite observations in global. The probability of underlying clouds below the anvils is up to 2/3. They can contribute up to 70 % of the observed total shortwave cooling effect when they fully overlap with anvils. After excluding the effect of underlying clouds, most of the anvil CRE changes sign from negative to positive, increasing by over +25 W/m2, especially over land. This revelation suggests a substantially underestimated warming effect of DCC anvils and cirrus in previous observations. Also, it may imply an underestimated aerosol-driven positive radiative forcing on DCC, which has been estimated as neutral previously.

From Tradition to the Future: Exploring Artistic Presentation in Contemporary Interactive Exhibitions

Abstract: With the rise of digital technology and new media, art exhibitions have shifted from static displays to interactive experiences that enhance audience participation and immersion. Interactive exhibitions break the formality and distance of traditional displays, bringing art closer to everyday life. This paper explores the emergence of interactive exhibitions in contemporary art, focusing on how exhibition design and participation mechanisms improve audience engagement. Through field research on Cao Fei: Tidal Flux, this article examines how elements like chairs and sound transform viewers from passive observers to active participants. These designs bridge the gap between art and audience found in traditional exhibitions, integrating art into daily life and promoting art education. By comparing the conventional "white cube" model, such as Andy Warhol exhibitionswith interactive exhibitions, this paper highlights how traditional models often limit audience interaction. In contrast, interactive designs like long benches and open soundscapes in Tidal Flux create an accessible and natural dialogue among visitors.

Interbrain neural correlates of self and other integration in joint statistical learning

While statistical learning is often studied individually, its collective representation through self-other integration remains unclear. This study examines dynamic self-other integration and its multi-brain mechanism using simultaneous recordings from dyads. Participants (N = 112) each repeatedly responded to half of a fixed stimulus sequence with either an active partner (joint context) or a passive observer (baseline context). Significant individual statistical learning was evident in the joint context, characterized by decreased reaction time (RT) and intra-brain neural responses, followed by a quadratic trend (i.e., first increasing and then decreasing) upon insertion of an interference sequence. More importantly, Brain-to-Brain Coupling (BtBC) in the theta band also showed learning and modulation-related trends, with its slope negatively and positively correlating with the slopes of RT and intra-brain functional connectivity, respectively. These results highlight the dynamic nature of self-other integration in joint statistical learning, with statistical regularities implicitly and spontaneously modulating this process. Notably, the BtBC serves as a key neural correlate underlying the dynamics of self-other integration.

Pan-Arctic sea ice concentration from SAR and passive microwave

Abstract. Arctic sea ice monitoring is a fundamental prerequisite for anticipating and mitigating the impacts of climate change. Satellite-based sea ice observations have been subject to intense attention over the last few decades, with passive microwave (PMW) radiometers being the primary sensors for retrieving pan-Arctic sea ice concentration, albeit with coarse spatial resolutions of a few or even tens of kilometers. Spaceborne synthetic aperture radar (SAR) missions, such as Sentinel-1, provide dual-polarized C-band images with < 100 m spatial resolution, which are particularly well-suited for retrieving high-resolution sea ice information. In recent years, deep-learning-based vision methodologies have emerged with promising results for SAR-based sea ice concentration retrievals. Despite recent advancements, most contributions focus on regional or local applications without empirical studies on the generalization of the algorithms to the pan-Arctic region. Furthermore, many contributions omit uncertainty quantification from the retrieval methodologies, which is a prerequisite for the integration of automated SAR-based sea ice products into the workflows of the national ice services or for assimilation into numerical ocean–sea ice coupled forecast models. Here, we present ASIP (Automated Sea Ice Products): a new and comprehensive deep-learning-based methodology to retrieve high-resolution sea ice concentration with accompanying well-calibrated uncertainties from Sentinel-1 SAR and Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer 2 (AMSR2) passive microwave observations at a pan-Arctic scale for all seasons. We compiled a vast matched dataset of Sentinel-1 HH/HV (horizontal transmit, horizontal/vertical receive polarizations) imagery and AMSR2 brightness temperatures to train ASIP with regional ice charts as labels. ASIP achieves an R2 score of 95 % against a held-out test dataset of regional ice charts. In a comparative study against pan-Arctic ice charts and a PMW-based sea ice product, we show that ASIP generalizes well to the pan-Arctic region. Additionally, the comparison reveals that ASIP consistently produces relatively higher sea ice concentration than the PMW-based sea ice product, with mean biases ranging from 1.45 % to 8.55 %, and that the discrepancies are primarily attributed to disparities in the marginal ice zone.

A comparative study on the impact of four different SVVR-supported intercultural learning environments on learners’ intercultural competence and learning engagement

ABSTRACT In the digital age, spherical video-based virtual reality (SVVR) emerges as a powerful tool for intercultural education, enabling immersive experiences that transcend geographical boundaries. However, prevalent research often reduces learners to passive observers, constraining the cultivation of intercultural competence. This study addresses the gap in current research by examining the effects of learning devices and interaction components within SVVR environments, based on embodied cognition theory, on intercultural competence. Additionally, it also focuses on student engagement during intercultural learning in SVVR environments, an aspect that previous studies have insufficiently explored. Using a mixed-methods approach with 80 participants from China and Indonesia, we compared four distinct learning environments: Basic Learning Environment (BLE), Virtual Reality Learning Environment (VRLE), Basic Guide Learning Environment (BGLE), and Embodied interactive Learning Environment (EILE). The findings indicate that the EILE, which achieves a higher level of embodied interaction, significantly enhances intercultural competence and learning engagement compared to other conditions. Specifically, EILE group showed superior emotional and cognitive engagement, as well as diverse and proactive behavioural patterns. This study underscores the importance of educational design in SVVR, showing that careful consideration of learning devices and interactive components can promote active learning, deeper understanding, and positive learning behaviours.

Feasibility Testing of Digitise Home Visit Service(DHVS) Core Model

The COVID-19 pandemic precipitated a global surge in homeschooling (Ray et al., 2020). While support networks for homeschooling parents have expanded, access to in-home educational professionals, particularly in rural areas, remains a significant challenge (Bullock & Davis, 2018). This study introduces a novel "Digitized Home Visit Education Services (DHVS) (Sathya D H, 2024)" model to address this gap. Building on two years of experience delivering one- to-one home visit special education, our model integrates online monitoring with in-home support from a local trained resource person. The model's feasibility was assessed through a comprehensive evaluation, encompassing subject selection, learning profile analysis, teacher training, and online monitoring during home visits. Semi-structured interviews with the parent, the teacher, the trained resource person, and the passive observer provide qualitative data to refine the model. This paper delves into the Digitised Home Visit Service (DHVS) Core Model, evaluating its feasibility and acceptability. Findings will contribute to the development of DHVS as an alternative special education and therapy service delivery model (Sathya D H, 2024), informing rehabilitation and special education professionals about an innovative method leveraging technology to reach needy students. Parents of students with disabilities will appreciate the digitised home visit model when it becomes available for their children to receive education at home.

Redefining Theatricality: How the Fourth Wall Shapes Audience Interaction in Gaming Theater

This paper examines the role of the fourth wall in gaming theater and its impact on audience interaction. Traditionally, the fourth wall serves as an invisible boundary separating performers from spectators, dividing the fictional world from the audience. In gaming theater, this boundary is often broken, granting audiences a more active role in shaping the narrative and interacting with performers. Employing an analytical approach and case studies, this research investigates the effects of manipulating the fourth wall on the theatrical experience and audience participation. Two gaming theater productions are examined: In "Reflections of the Dream Realm," the fourth wall is completely dismantled, allowing audiences to participate through sensory engagement and voting. In "Harmony of Whispers," the fourth wall is partially maintained, yet audiences remain collaboratively involved in the storytelling process. Findings indicate that removing the separation between the stage and the audience can fundamentally alter the theatrical experience, transforming audiences from passive observers into active co-creators, particularly within the gaming theater genre, where interactive elements and innovative technologies like voting and augmented reality are employed.

Resolution enhancement of SMOS brightness temperatures: Application to melt detection on the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets

A large part of the surface of the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS) and the margins of Antarctica are melting every summer, affecting their surface mass balance. Wet/dry snow status has been detected for decades using the peaks of brightness temperature at 19 GHz, and more recently at L-band (1.4 GHz) using both the SMOS and SMAP missions. SMOS owns a longer time series than SMAP with data since 2010, but the 52.5°incidence bin in the Level 3 (L3) product from Centre Aval de Traitement des Données SMOS (CATDS) that was previously used to detect melt suffers from a coarse spatial resolution. For this reason, we developed a new SMOS enhanced resolution brightness temperature (TB) product building on the radiometer version of the Scatterometter Image Reconstruction (rSIR) algorithm. We also exploited the SMOS L1C observations near 40°incidence angle instead of 52.5°as the native spatial resolution of SMOS is better at low incidence. The new product is posted on a 12.5 km polar stereographic grid and covers all the GrIS and Antarctica for 2010–2024 with twice-daily morning and afternoon acquisitions. The effective spatial resolution was evaluated to ∼30 km, a 30% enhancement compared to the SMOS L3TB at 40°and almost a 50% enhancement compared to the SMOS L3TB at 52.5°. Then, we applied a melt detection algorithm to both the enhanced resolution product at 40°and the L3TB product at 52.5°which is used in the literature. The spatial resolution enhancement results not only in the detection of smaller melt regions but also in a widespread increase in the annual number of melt days. This increase is larger than 30 days per year in the GrIS percolation area and on multiple Antarctic ice shelves. This is primarily due to the mix of dry and wet snow regions near the ice shelves grounding line, resulting in lower brightness temperature peaks in the SMOS L3TB product due to a large power spread. These findings highlight the dependence of melt detection in particular, and geophysical applications in general, on the spatial resolution of passive microwave observations. This study provides a new open dataset suitable to monitor melt at the surface and at depth on the two main ice-sheets.

“The Society of the Spectacle”: a Diagnosis of (Post)Modernity and Its Challenges

This paper critically examines the complexities of contemporary society through the theoretical framework of Guy Debord’s The Society of the Spectacle (1967), highlighting how modernity has transformed individuals from passive observers of the world to egomaniacal creators of their own reality, ultimately leading to a sense of alienation and existential unease. Furthermore, the paper elucidates the transition from a state of survival to one of collective psychosis, where the pursuit of abundance and commodification has ensnared individuals within a perpetual cycle of materialism and alienation. Debord’s concept of the spectacle is discussed to demonstrate how it has evolved into a tool for the suppression of genuine human interaction and a mechanism for upholding the prevailing status quo. The pivotal role played by the Situationist International and Guy Debord in confronting this social paradigm is also explored. Emphasis is placed on their concerted efforts to foment change and reignite a sense of enchantment in a world that has forfeited its mystique. In conclusion, the paper acknowledges the enduring relevance of Debord’s insights in the contemporary milieu, positing that rebellious youth, seeking to secure their own freedom, should turn to his works for guidance in addressing the challenges posed by “the society of the spectacle”.

Evidence for seasonal migration by a cryptic top predator of the deep sea

BackgroundIn ecosystems influenced by strong seasonal variation in insolation, the fitness of diverse taxa depends on seasonal movements to track resources along latitudinal or elevational gradients. Deep pelagic ecosystems, where sunlight is extremely limited, represent Earth’s largest habitable space and yet ecosystem phenology and effective animal movement strategies in these systems are little understood. Sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) provide a valuable acoustic window into this world: the echolocation clicks they produce while foraging in the deep sea are the loudest known biological sounds on Earth and convey detailed information about their behavior.MethodsWe analyze seven years of continuous passive acoustic observations from the Central California Current System, using automated methods to identify both presence and demographic information from sperm whale echolocation clicks. By integrating empirical results with individual-level movement simulations, we test hypotheses about the movement strategies underlying sperm whales’ long-distance movements in the Northeast Pacific.ResultsWe detect foraging sperm whales of all demographic groups year-round in the Central California Current System, but also identify significant seasonality in frequency of presence. Among several previously hypothesized movement strategies for this population, empirical acoustic observations most closely match simulated results from a population undertaking a “seasonal resource-tracking migration”, in which individuals move to track moderate seasonal-latitudinal variation in resource availability.DiscussionOur findings provide evidence for seasonal movements in this cryptic top predator of the deep sea. We posit that these seasonal movements are likely driven by tracking of deep-sea resources, based on several lines of evidence: (1) seasonal-latitudinal patterns in foraging sperm whale detection across the Northeast Pacific; (2) lack of demographic variation in seasonality of presence; and (3) the match between simulations of seasonal resource-tracking migration and empirical results. We show that sperm whales likely track oceanographic seasonality in a manner similar to many surface ocean predators, but with dampened seasonal-latitudinal movement patterns. These findings shed light on the drivers of sperm whales’ long-distance movements and the shrouded phenology of the deep-sea ecosystems in which they forage.

Quantifying the influence of snow over sea ice morphology on L-band passive microwave satellite observations in the Southern Ocean

Abstract. Antarctic snow on sea ice can contain slush, snow ice, and stratified layers, complicating satellite retrieval processes for snow depth, ice thickness, and sea ice concentration. The presence of moist and brine-wetted snow alters microwave snow emissions and modifies the energy and mass balance of sea ice. This study assesses the impact of brine-wetted snow and slush layers on L-band surface brightness temperatures (TBs) by synergizing a snow stratigraphy model (SNOWPACK) driven by atmospheric reanalysis data and the RAdiative transfer model Developed for Ice and Snow in the L-band (RADIS-L) v1.0 The updated RADIS-L v1.1 further introduces parameterizations for brine-wetted snow and slush layers over Antarctic sea ice. Our findings highlight the importance of including both brine-wetted snow and slush layers in order to accurately simulate L-band brightness temperatures, laying the groundwork for improved satellite retrievals of snow depth and ice thickness using satellite sensors such as Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) and Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP). However, biases in modelled and observed L-band brightness temperatures persist, which we attribute to small-scale sea ice heterogeneity and snow stratigraphy. Given the scarcity of comprehensive in situ snow and ice data in the Southern Ocean, ramping up observational initiatives is imperative to not only provide satellite validation datasets but also improve process-level understanding that can scale up to improving the precision of satellite snow and ice thickness retrievals.

CALIPSO-based aerosol extinction profile estimation from MODIS and MERRA-2 data using a hybrid model of Transformer and CNN

Acquiring aerosol vertical distribution information is crucial to accurately quantify the aerosol radiation effect on climate and understand the environmental pollution mechanism of the atmosphere. Passive remote sensing has shown its capability to gain large-scale, high spatiotemporal resolution aerosol vertical information such as aerosol layer height (ALH). However, it is still challenging to extract detailed aerosol vertical distribution information, e.g., aerosol extinction profile (AEP), from passive observations. To fill this gap, this study proposed a hybrid model of Transformer and convolutional neural network (CNN) to estimate the AEP from passive multispectral remote sensing (MODIS) measurements with the aid of three-dimensional reanalysis data (MERRA-2). Specifically, the model is learned to estimate the AEP, which is called AproNet, by using the active space-borne lidar (CALIPSO) data as supervised information. Besides, we design a shape invariant loss (SIL) to better capture the shape characteristics of the AEP and incorporate an auxiliary scene awareness loss (SAL) to enhance the model's generalization capacity and physical reliability outside the CALIPSO orbit. The extensive quantitative experiments show that the AEPs estimated by the proposed model agree well with the CALIPSO measurements with an overall performance of IOA=0.821, R=0.800, MAE= 0.014, and RMSE= 0.041, respectively. Qualitative comparisons also demonstrate the model's reliability in estimating the aerosol three-dimensional spatial distribution. Independent year test and comparisons with ground-based lidar measurements further indicate the robustness of the proposed model despite some degradation in performance. However, the incompleteness and uncertainty of the CALIOP products limited the performance of the proposed model to some extent. In the future, the model needs to be further physically constrained and strengthened with more data sources to improve reliability. In general, this study paves the way for acquiring aerosol extinction profiles with high spatiotemporal resolution over a large geographical space.

Walking-wit(h)nessing: propositions for walking with waste landscapes in early childhood education

ABSTRACT This paper takes walking-based research in early childhood education as a propositional space, one grounded in reconsidering witnessing as a practice attuned to co-emergence in waste landscapes. I draw from Ettinger’s (2001) and Boscacci’s (2018) word-concept wit(h)nessing to stake out some possibilities for walking-wit(h)nessing as an affective, relational practice for pedagogical responses to child-waste subjectivities in the ongoing global waste crisis. In doing so, I am careful to frame walking alongside waste landscapes as an invitational move towards resisting passive observation, one that refuses to extricate children, educators, and researchers from living-and-becoming with waste. I conclude by offering three propositions for walking-wit(h)nessing waste landscapes that open towards walking practices that embrace the tensions of waste and human/more-than-human enmeshment for enacting pedagogies that confront and counter status quo waste logics of invisibility, the problematics of scale, and solvability.

Tramadol Effects on Brain Activity During Cognitive and Emotional Empathy for Pain: A Randomized Controlled Study

Pain is perceived not only by personal experience but also vicariously. Pain empathy is the ability to share and understand other’s intentions and emotions in their painful conditions, which can be divided into cognitive and emotional empathy. It remains unclear how centrally acting analgesics would modulate brain activity related to pain empathy and which component of pain empathy would be altered by analgesics. In this study, we examined the effects of the analgesic tramadol on the brain activity for pain empathy in healthy adults. We used 2 tasks to assess brain activity for pain empathy. In experiment 1, we used a well-established picture-based pain empathy task involving passive observation of other’s pain. In experiment 2, we developed a novel pain empathy task to assess brain activity during cognitive and emotional empathy for pain separately in a single task. We conducted a double-blind, placebo-controlled within-subject crossover study with functional magnetic resonance imaging for 33 participants in experiment 1 and 31 participants in experiment 2, respectively. In experiment 1, we found that tramadol decreased activation in the supramarginal gyrus during observation of other's pain compared with placebo. Supramarginal gyrus activation correlated negatively with the thermal pain threshold. In experiment 2, we found that tramadol decreased activation in angular gyrus in cognitive empathy for pain compared with placebo but did not change brain activity in emotional empathy for pain. PerspectiveCentrally acting analgesics such as tramadol may have not only analgesic effects on self-experienced pain but also on the complex neural processing of pain empathy.

Imitation-inhibition training can reduce the observation-inflation effect in face-to-face scenarios.

Observing others performing an action can lead to false memories of self-performance-the observation-inflation effect. Previous research has indicated that this phenomenon might impact the memory of actions in real-world interactions. However, whether direct observation without interaction can lead to observation inflation remains unclear. In Experiment 1, participants passively observed the experimenter performing actions live. In subsequent memory tests, they indeed reported false memories regarding their performances. Building on this, Experiment 2 investigated the causes of the observation-inflation effect induced by "real" actions. Participants underwent imitation-inhibition training with the individuals they observed previously. The results revealed that participants who completed imitation-inhibition training reported fewer false memories in memory tests than those who completed imitation training. These findings suggest that even passive observation of "real" actions can lead to observation inflation, and the simulation of others' actions by individuals may be a potential underlying cause of their occurrence in real-life situations.

All weather land surface temperature estimation by combining thermal infrared and passive microwave radiometry: a study over India

ABSTRACT Land Surface Temperature (LST) plays a crucial role in water and energy cycle studies. However, clouds pose a significant challenge in obtaining continuous LST time series from Thermal Infrared (TIR) sensors. To overcome this challenge, this study leverages the potential of Passive Microwave Radiometry (PMR), which offers all-weather observation capabilities, albeit at a coarser spatial resolution to estimate all-weather LST over India. In this study, we trained a Random Forest (RF) model using clear sky LST from either Moderate Resolution Spectro Radiometer (MODIS) or Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) and passive microwave observations from Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-2 (AMSR2), enabling LST estimation at a 1 km spatial resolution under clear and cloudy conditions. The performance of the models was evaluated by comparing the RF simulated LST with observed LST data from MODIS and VIIRS satellites. The Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) for the RF models was found to be 2.17 K and 2.29 K respectively, with coefficient of determination (R2) values of 0.97 for both the models. Furthermore, comparisons with in-situ observations resulted in RMSE values of 2.24–3.70 K and 2.40–4.07 K for clear sky and cloudy sky LST, respectively, for MODIS. Similarly, for the VIIRS LST prediction model, the RMSE values were 2.61–3.51 K and 2.60–3.97 K for clear and cloudy sky conditions. These findings demonstrate the potential of using passive microwave radiometers to estimate LST and highlight the applicability of the RF model for LST estimation under overcast conditions.

On being a ‘passive observer’: The corporeal and affective dimensions of power in observational research on trafficked women in criminal proceedings

In this article, I analyse the methodological issues that arise when I accept a judge's invitation to observe her hear women testify in criminal proceedings against their traffickers at the district courthouse in X, Germany. I develop a theoretical framework using Pierre Bourdieu's theory of embodied power and his methods of epistemic reflexivity and participant objectivation, and feminist engagements with affect theory. I use my fieldwork experience with a judicial gatekeeper and in conducting ethnographic observational research ‘behind the scenes of formal law’ to interrogate how bodies, emotions and affects inform power in the spaces of criminal law. Specifically, I approach bodies, emotions and affects as conceptual tools with which to interrogate how power transmits when I ‘enter’ and ‘read’ the field, and make claims to ‘know’ the subject under study. Core to my analysis is a critical process of self-reflection, through which I challenge the assumptions that underpin my assessment of my research participants’ ability to consent to participate in my study.

Differences in Thunderstorms' Ice Microphysics Between the Amazon and Central Africa Inferred From Spaceborne Passive Microwave and Radar Observations

AbstractThis study examines the differences related to microphysical properties of ice in thunderstorms over the Amazon and Congo Basin using the Precipitation Feature (PF) data sets derived from passive microwave and radar observations from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission and Global Precipitation Mission Core Satellites. Analysis reveals that Amazon thunderstorms are likely composed of ice crystals smaller but more numerous than those in the Congo Basin, resulting in half as many flashes per PF on average in the Amazon, for similar Ice Water Content (IWC) or Area of 30 dBZ at −10°C (Acharge). The increase of the flash count following an increase of the IWC (Acharge) is only 72% (61%) as effective in the Amazon as it would be in the Congo Basin area. PFs with similar 30 dBZ radar echo top heights exhibit lower Brightness Temperatures (TBs) in the 85/89, 165, and 183 GHz frequencies over the Amazon, indicating more numerous smaller ice particles compared to those over the Congo Basin, which tend to show colder TBs at 37 GHz, possibly due to more numerous large graupel or hail particles. Comparisons of TBs in PFs with similar 30 dBZ echo top temperature between the Amazon and 3 × 3º global grids show that the median TB in Amazon is higher than that in most oceanic areas but is comparable to areas having high oceanic lightning activity (e.g., South Pacific Convergence Zone). It suggests that systems in the Amazon have similarities with maritime precipitation systems, yet with distinct characteristics indicative of land systems.

Empathic stress is decreased by prior stressor experience and increased in a position of power

The observation of a stressed individual can trigger a stress response in a passive observer. Little is known about the mechanisms of this so-termed empathic stress, including the observer's empathic involvement with the stressful situation. In 108 opposite-sex stranger dyads, we expected to increase the observer's empathic involvement with a stressed target performing a standardized laboratory stressor (Trier Social Stress Test, TSST; Kirschbaum et al., 1993) by exposing observers themselves to the TSST one week earlier. Conversely, we intended to decrease empathic involvement by granting observers a powerful position over the targets (by asking them to evaluate the targets' TSST performance and allegedly decide on their financial compensation). A control group without any manipulation was also included. In the preregistered data analysis, two types of empathic stress were investigated: vicarious stress, which evolves irrespective of the target's stress response, and stress resonance, which is proportional to the target's stress response. Irrespective of manipulation, observers exhibited vicarious stress in subjective and high-frequency heart rate variability (HF-HRV), and synchronized with the targets' stress reactivity in cortisol release. Prior TSST experience unexpectedly decreased observers' self-reported empathy and vicarious cortisol stress reactivity. The power manipulation, conversely, led to stronger observer vicarious stress in overall heart rate and HF-HRV reactivity. Based on Wondra and Ellsworth's (2015) appraisal theory, we propose that, due to their prior stressor exposure, observers habituated to said stressor, and consequently changed their evaluation of the target's stressful situation. In contrast, observers in the powerful position may have felt responsible for the targets, triggering a stronger vicarious stressful experience.

The impact of top-down and bottom-up factors in shaping the status of the victim: A study of recent victim empowerment shifts in Slovenia

Victims of crime have seen a significant shift in the criminal justice approaches towards them over time: from rather passive observers of the conflict between the state and the offender to more active agents whose thoughts, wishes and emotions are allowed to be voiced and whose participation is recognised as legitimate in its own right within the criminal process. The article analyses to what extent this empowerment shift is reflected in Slovenia, specifically how the criminal law acknowledges and defines the victim in the criminal justice setting. While the European Union (EU) legislation in this area, as a top-down factor in shaping the rights and status of the victim, has provided an important impetus for legislative changes, particularly in relation to certain aspects, rights and categories of crime victims, as well as the definition of the victim, the more conceptual recent transformations (e.g. an altered model of rape) arose out of changed societal sensitivities spurred by triggering events and a wider social and political context. Implications and outstanding challenges are discussed in the concluding section.