Particle Film Technology Research Articles

The false tiger of almond, Monosteira unicostata (Hemiptera: Tingidae): Biology, ecology, and control methods

Abstract The almond tree, following the olive tree, holds the distinction of being the fruit species occupying the largest area in Morocco, spanning 128,000 ha and hosting 16 million trees. This sector holds immense socio-economic significance both nationally and globally. Despite its prominence, the almond tree faces severe phytosanitary challenges, prominently among them, the False tiger bug of the almond tree, Monosteira unicostata (Mulsant & Rey [Hemiptera: Tingidae]). This polyphagous, sedentary, and gregarious hemipteran, boasting five larval instars and typically generating four generations annually, exhibits a life cycle duration ranging from 2 to 3 months contingent on the season. This pest inflicts notable harm on almond tree leaves by extracting their chlorophyll content through its piercing mouthparts and depositing excrement, impeding respiratory function and adversely impacting fruit development, maturation, and overall production. Diverse control strategies have been implemented to tackle this issue, commencing with prophylaxis involving resistant varieties and sound agricultural practices. Subsequently, biological control methods leveraging natural enemies such as Piocoris luridus and species from families including Coccinellidae, Anthocoridae, Lygaeidae, Miridae, and Nabidae have been employed. Plant-based biopesticides such as azadirachtin (Azadirachta indica), thyme oil (Thymus zygis), Jatropha oil (Jatropha curcas), and concentrated extracts of Artemisia absinthium, as well as mineral-based approaches involving treated kaolin sprays through particle film technology, contribute to the arsenal of control measures. In cases of severe infestations, synthetic active ingredients such as organophosphates, pyrethroids, carbamates, abamectin, and deltamethrin, among others, have proven efficacy in managing this pest.

Use of mineral particle film to protect ‘Okitsu’ tangerine and ‘Valencia’ orange against Anastrepha fraterculus and the effect on fruit quality

The particle film technology has been reported as a promising tool in pest control. The objective of this work was to evaluate the efficiency of kaolin-based products against the oviposition of South American fruit fly, Anastrepha fraterculus (Dip.:Tephritidae), and its effect on the quality of citrus fruits. The experiment was conducted in orchards of ‘Okitsu’ tangerine and ‘Valencia’ orange trees in the 2017, 2018 and 2019 harvests. The treatments were as follows: 1) kaolin 10% + 0.1% Break-Thru® adjuvant; 2) Surround® 5% WP; 3) 0.15% phosmet (Imidan® 500 WP), 75 g. a.i.; 4) without application (control). The sprays were performed every 21 days. At harvest, fruits were individually packed in a greenhouse for inspection after 25 days and infestation was recorded. Fruit samples were evaluated for average diameter, average mass, soluble solids, titratable acidity and peel colorimetry. Infestation of A. fraterculus in tangerines was reduced in plants treated with the two kaolin-based products in the 2017 harvest. In the 2017 and 2019 crops, Surround® WP reduced the infestation and the number of puparium/fruits in oranges. The mineral films did not alter the physicochemical characteristics of the fruits, representing a promising alternative for the management of A. fraterculus.

Particle film technology modulates xanthophyll cycle and photochemical dynamics of grapevines grown in the Douro Valley

Field-grown grapevines are often exposed to multiple environmental stresses, which challenges wine-growers to develop sustainable measures to sustain vine growth, yield, and quality. Under field conditions this task is demanding, due to differences in the magnitudes of stresses and associated plant responses. In this study we explored the hypothesis that kaolin-particle film application improves grapevine photoprotection through the regulation of xanthophyll cycle genes, limiting the thermal dissipation of excess energy under harsh environmental conditions. Hence, we selected two grapevine varieties, Touriga-Nacional (TN) and Touriga-Franca (TF), grown in the Douro Demarcated Region, and evaluated changes in light dissipation mechanisms, xanthophyll cycle components, and the expression of xanthophyll cycle genes during the 2017 summer season. The results showed that, from veraison to ripening, kaolin triggered the up-regulation of violaxanthin de-epoxidase (VvVDE1) and zeaxanthin epoxidase (VvZEP1) genes, indicating optimised regulation of the xanthophyll cycle. Kaolin treatment also decreased chlorophyll (Chla, Chlb, Chl(a+b)) and carotenoid (Car) accumulation under increasing summer stress conditions in both varieties and lowered the non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) of grapevines on ripening, suggesting a long-term response to summer stress. In addition, kaolin-treated grapevines showed increased Chla/Chlb and lower Chl(a+b)/Car ratios, displaying some features of high light adapted leaves. Overall, this study suggests that kaolin application enabled grapevines to benefit from fluctuating periods of summer stress by managing chlorophyll and carotenoid content and limiting down-regulation of both photochemistry and photoinhibition processes. Under Mediterranean field conditions, kaolin application can be considered an efficient method of minimising summer stress impact on grapevines.

Particle film technology for insect pest management in potato

An experiment was conducted under AICRP on potato at OUAT, Bhubaneswar on potato variety ‘Kufri Ashoka’ using the particle film technology against major insect pests. Kaolin was applied as foliar spray at different concentrations (1.25%, 2.5% and 3.75%), both under black polythene mulch and non-mulch conditions. Based on the pooled mean over two seasons, effectiveness of both the concentrations of kaolin (2.5% and 3.75%) were found to be statistically at par with regard to management of whiteflies (6.4 to 7.0 white flies/plant) irrespective of mulching of the plots and comparable to imidacloprid 17.8 SL @ 0.03% (2.3 to 2.7 whiteflies/plant). Similar trend of equal effectiveness against jassids was also observed in the experiment. Reduction in the population of cutworms and epilachna beetle revealed that these chewing insects avoided the leaves sprayed with kaolin irrespective of their concentrations. However, kaolin @ 2.5% treatment in non-mulching situation recorded higher benefit: cost (B:C) ratio (1.70) which is very close to that of standard chemical treatment imidacloprid 17.8 SL @0.03% (1.79). The SPAD reading showed no pattern of decrease or increase in chlorophyll content after kaolin spray to potato leaves. So considering the bio-efficacy against both sucking and chewing insect pests, kaolin @ 2.5% spray in non mulching condition was found to be the most efficient.

Kaolin Reduces ABA Biosynthesis Through the Inhibition of Neoxanthin Synthesis in Grapevines Under Water Deficit.

In many viticulture regions, multiple summer stresses are occurring with increased frequency and severity because of warming trends. Kaolin-based particle film technology is a technique that can mitigate the negative effects of intense and/or prolonged drought on grapevine physiology. Although a primary mechanism of action of kaolin is the increase of radiation reflection, some indirect effects are the protection of canopy functionality and faster stress recovery by abscisic acid (ABA) regulation. The physiological mechanism underlying the kaolin regulation of canopy functionality under water deficit is still poorly understood. In a dry-down experiment carried out on grapevines, at the peak of stress and when control vines zeroed whole-canopy net CO2 exchange rates/leaf area (NCER/LA), kaolin-treated vines maintained positive NCER/LA (~2 µmol m−2 s−1) and canopy transpiration (E) (0.57 µmol m−2 s−1). Kaolin-coated leaves had a higher violaxanthin (Vx) + antheraxanthin (Ax) + zeaxanthin (Zx) pool and a significantly lower neoxanthin (Nx) content (VAZ) when water deficit became severe. At the peak of water shortage, leaf ABA suddenly increased by 4-fold in control vines, whereas in kaolin-coated leaves the variation of ABA content was limited. Overall, kaolin prevented the biosynthesis of ABA by avoiding the deviation of the VAZ epoxidation/de-epoxidation cycle into the ABA precursor (i.e., Nx) biosynthetic direction. The preservation of the active VAZ cycle and transpiration led to an improved dissipation of exceeding electrons, explaining the higher resilience of canopy functionality expressed by canopies sprayed by kaolin. These results point out the interaction of kaolin with the regulation of the VAZ cycle and the active mechanism of stomatal conductance regulation.

Kaolin-based particle film sprays reduce the incidence of pests, diseases and storage disorders and improve postharvest quality of ‘Delicious’ apples

Several pests and diseases infest apple during production, potentially causing heavy losses. Numerous pesticides are used to control pests and diseases, sprays of which contaminate the environment and result in pesticide residues. Among Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs), particle film technology (PFT) is promising for organic fruit production. Now some kaolin-based PFs such as Surround WP®, EclipseT, Anti-stress-500®, Parasol® have been developed which are available worldwide for commercial use. In India, preliminary research work was conducted for observing the effect of one kaolin-based PF (Surround WP®) on ‘Delicious’ apple. Five sprays of Surround WP® (3%) were applied to 20-randomly selected ‘Delicious’ apple trees each year during 2015–16 and 2016–17. The sprays were applied, starting on June 15 every year at fortnightly intervals and 20 unsprayed trees served as controls. Surround WP® reduced the incidence of San Jose scale (by ~ 64%), apple scab (by ~ 87%) and powdery mildew (by ~78%) significantly but increased the incidence of woolly apple aphid (by ~ 23%) compared to the control. Surround WP®- treated apples developed a better red color (Hunter ‘a’ value = 53.42 ± 0.42), increased anthocyanin content and improved appearance score. Surround WP® - treated apples were 35.4% firmer and contained a 49.9% higher Ca content compared to untreated fruit. Surround WP® treatment also showed significant improvement in soluble solids (increased by 10.5%) and ascorbic acid content (increased by 10.8%) with significant reduction in storage disorders such as bitter pit (reduced by 90.8%), brown core (reduced by 73.3%) and water core (reduced by 88.4%). Based on this study, Surround WP® can be recommended for organic production of ‘Delicious’ apples in Himachal Pradesh, India.

Effect of Surround WP®, a kaolin-based particle film on sunburn, fruit cracking and postharvest quality of ‘Kandhari’ pomegranates

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) can suffer from sunburn and fruit cracking, and biotic stresses such as bacterial blight (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. Punicae) (Hingorani and Singh) Dye and fruit borer (Deuodorix isocrates Fabr.). Because particle film technology has emerged as a promising technology, many kaolin-based films such as Surround WP®, Parasol® and Anti-stress-500®, have been developed. Hence, a study was conducted to observe the effects of Surround WP® on ‘Kandhari’ pomegranate. For this, five sprays of Surround WP® (3%) were made during the fruiting season of 2015 and 2016 in randomly selected ‘Kandhari’ pomegranate bushes, starting from June 15, at fortnightly interval every year, in addition to non-sprayed control pomegranate bushes. Observations on biotic, abiotic stresses and quality attributes were recorded after harvesting fruit. The results revealed that pre-harvest sprays of Surround WP® reduced the sunburn and fruit cracking in ‘Kandhari’ pomegranates by 47% and 46%, respectively, and the incidence of both fruit borer and bacterial blight by 50.3 and 40.2%, respectively. The Surround WP®-treated pomegranates exhibited 46.4% higher cosmetic appeal, developed 19.5% higher red colour, and contained 17.4% higher levels of total anthocyanin content than untreated (control) fruit. Similarly, Surround WP®- treated fruit had significantly higher total phenolic content, antioxidant activity, higher juice recovery (18.2%) and soluble solid content (5.6%) but exhibited nearly 35.9% lower lipoxygenase activity than untreated pomegranates. Thus, this technology has potential to be adopted in pomegranate production.

Evaluation of kaolin and cinnamon essential oil to manage two pests and a fungal disease of sour cherry at different tree canopy levels

We studied the effects of kaolin particle film applications on major sour cherry (Prunus cerasus L.) pests and fruit quality and evaluated the ability of cinnamon essential oil (Cinnamomum verum J. Presl) to reduce infestations by cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis cerasi (Linnaeus 1758) (Diptera: Tephritidae), in the field. Efficacy of kaolin particle films (Surround WP, Engelhard Corporation; applied at 4% concentration) was compared at two application frequencies (one and two applications). The essential oil of cinnamon (applied at 0.25% concentration) was sprayed five times on selected trees. As the amount of damage caused by pests may vary between different parts of the canopy, both kaolin and essential oil treatments were evaluated at two canopy levels. We found that the damage of R. cerasi and stone fruit weevil, Anthonomus rectirostris (Linnaeus 1758) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), on the fruits occurred primarily in the upper third of the canopy, while the incidence of sour cherry anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum acutatum J. H. Simmonds 1968 (Glomerellales: Glomerellaceae) was concentrated to the lower third of the canopy. Two kaolin particle film applications significantly reduced the fruit injury caused by R. cerasi by 62% (Abbott’s efficacy). In contrast, the treatments showed no activity against A. rectirostris and C. acutatum, although infestation by A. rectirostris was numerically lower on the trees treated with kaolin (19–32% efficacy). The kaolin applications did not affect the average fruit weight (g/100 cherries) and soluble solid content (SSC, %). The cinnamon essential oil applications did not control infestations by R. cerasi. Overall, our results suggest that kaolin particle film technology is a promising tool in pest management programs in organic sour cherry production, at least against R. cerasi.

Entblätterungsmaßnahmen bei der Rebsorte ‘Muscat Hamburg‘ (V. Vinifera L.) haben in Abhängigkeit von der Himmelsrichtung und in Kombination mit einem Kaolinbelag Einfluss auf die Zusammensetzung von sekundären Pflanzenstoffen

In some viticulture regions of the world, high temperature and irradiance can negatively affect the grapevine growth and grape quality. Particle film technology is a remarkable tool, leading to decrease in environmental stress conditions for grape production. In current study, leaf removal and kaolin particle film treatments were performed on east and west sides of grapevine’s canopy of cv. Muscat Hamburg and five different treatments were respectively evaluated: Control (C), leaf removal treatment from east side of grapevine’s canopy (LR-E), leaf removal treatment from east side of grapevine’s canopy plus kaolin particle film treatment (LR-E + K), leaf removal treatment from west side of grapevine’s canopy (LR-W), leaf removal treatment from west side of grapevine’s canopy plus kaolin particle film treatment (LR-W + K). In present research, the higher total phenolic compounds contents were measured in LR-W (2010.56 mg GAE/kg fw), LR-W + K (2006.42 mg GAE/kg fw), LR-E (1925.58 mg GAE/kg fw), LR-E + K (1913.15 mg GAE/kg fw) and C treatment (1851.46 mg GAE/kg fw). Furthermore, means of higher total anthocyanin content were obtained from LR-W (737.68 mg GAE/kg fw), LR-W + K (736.16 mg GAE/kg fw), LR-E (706.50 mg GAE/kg fw), LR-E + K (701.94 mg GAE/kg fw) and C treatment (679.12 mg GAE/kg fw). Consequently, it was observed that both LR-W and LR-W + K treatments had especially advantages in terms of increasing grape quality attributes of cv. Muscat Hamburg; were followed by LR-E and LR-E + K treatments.

Effectiveness of Particle Film Technology and Copper Products in the Control of Olive Fruit Fly.

Effectiveness of Particle Film Technology and Copper Products in the Control of Olive Fruit Fly.

Effectiveness of Kaolin Clay Particle Film in ManagingHelopeltis collaris(Hemiptera: Miridae), a Major Pest of Cacao in the Philippines

Summary The use of particle film technology has not been documented previously to protect cacao (Theobroma cacao L.; Malvales: Malvaceae) against insect feeding. Laboratory assessment of the use of local kaolin against the cacao mirid bug, Helopeltis collaris Stal (Hemiptera: Miridae), revealed a highly positive and statistically significant repellence of this insect pest on kaolin-treated cacao pods. This result warrants follow up field studies to evaluate further the potential of kaolin clay to control cacao pests in the Philippines.

Particle film technology: A supplemental tool to save water

This paper aims to evaluate kaolin application as an effective tool for controlling stomatal conductance (gs) and transpiration rate (E), in order to enhance tolerance to water stress and salinity and to improve water productivity. Five experiments were carried out under open field conditions in Southern Italy in order to evaluate the effect of kaolin application on the physiological responses of well watered bean and Clementine, tomato under three salinity levels and two irrigation regimes and to try to overcome the vegetables’ transplant shock under two irrigation regimes.Kaolin reduced crop evapotranspiration in bean by 13% and increased photosynthetic water productivity (pWP) and yield water productivity (yWP) by 20 and 9.8%, respectively. In Clementine kaolin reduced E by 26.2% and increased pWP by 30.5%.In tomato kaolin improved the water status of the plant, and reduced gs, net photosynthesis (A) and E under low salinity or well watered conditions. By contrast, under salt stress or drought, kaolin was effective in limiting the reduction in A and reducing leaf temperature (Tl). This increased pWP by 25.3 and 33.1%, respectively, in well watered and water stressed tomato, and by 9.2 and 24.9%, respectively, in the non saline and high saline treatment.Kaolin proved effective in limiting transplant shock under conditions of limited water supply, increasing dry biomass growth rate and biomass water productivity (bWP) by 18.4 and 19%, respectively.Kaolin can be efficiently utilized as an antitranspirant to alleviate the effects of drought and salinity, to reduce transplant shock and to save water in dry regions.

Kaolin influences tomato response to salinity: physiological aspects

Environmental stress as salinity can negatively affect the physiology of tomato plants. Conditions leading to a reduction of transpiration can contribute to greater tolerance to salinity. Use of kaolin-based particle film technology (PFT) may be an effective tool to control stomatal conductance and transpiration rate, thus mitigating the detrimental effect of salinity. The present three-year study has investigated the effects of kaolin application on leaf gas exchange, leaf water potential, leaf and canopy temperature of field-grown tomato, irrigated with brackish water by drip method, in southern Italy. Treatments were: (1) three salinity levels of irrigation water (electrical conductivity of water = 0.5, 5 and 10 dS m−1); (2) tomato plants treated or not with kaolin; and (3) two cultivars in each year. The increase in salinity caused the reduction of leaf water potential, stomatal conductance, net photosynthesis and transpiration rate, and the increase of leaf and canopy temperature. Kaolin has resulted in an improvement of leaf water potential, and the reduction in gas exchange variables in low-salinity conditions. Under high salinity, kaolin was effective in limiting the reductions in net photosynthesis and reducing leaf and canopy temperature. These latter variables were slightly affected by kaolin, in different ways in respect to the saline treatments; while in non-saline conditions were 0.2–0.5°C higher in the kaolin-treated plants, the situation was reversed in more saline treatment. The variation of leaf and canopy temperature shows that kaolin influences the thermal balance mainly for the dual effect of reflection of the incident radiation and partial occlusion of the stomata. Kaolin mitigated detrimental effects of salinity also on yield, contributing to the improvement of income for the farmers. The use of kaolin-based PFT may be an effective tool to alleviate salinity stress in tomato production under arid and semi-arid conditions.

Effects of processed kaolin on pests and non-target arthropods in a Spanish olive grove

The particle film technology based on processed kaolin sprays has been recently introduced for the control of the olive fruit fly Bactrocera oleae (Rossi), the key pest of olive groves. A 3-year field experiment was conducted from 2005 to 2007 at Villarejo de Salvanes, Spain to assess the efficacy of a kaolin-based product (Surround WP) for controlling B.oleae and two other olive insect pests: the olive black scale Saissetiaoleae (Olivier) and the olive psyllid Euphylluraolivina (Costa). The effects of Surround WP on the arthropod community of olive trees and on natural enemies were also evaluated. In a high olive fruit fly pressure year (2007), Surround WP sprays significantly reduced the incidence of B. oleae and that of S. oleae. However, Surround WP treatments did not have any effect on E. olivina populations. Both the abundance and the diversity of arthropods were reduced by Surround WP treatment. The principal response curve (PRC) analysis revealed a significant deleterious effect of Surround WP on the natural enemy arthropod community of the olive grove. The most affected taxa were the following: the coccinellids Scymnus mediterraneus Iablokoff-Khnzorian, Stethorus punctillum Weise and Hyperaspis reppensis (Hbst.); the mirid Brachynotocoris ferreri n. sp. Baena (in litteris); different species of Orius and the families of Philodromidae, Scelionidae, Pteromalidae, Chrysopidae and Aphelinidae. Processed kaolin is proposed as an alternative to chemical control of the olive fruit fly. However, the effect of processed kaolin treatments on natural enemies should be taken into account in a rational pest control programme.

Kaolin-based particle film technology affects tomato physiology, yield and quality

Environmental stress can affect development and yield of tomato plants. This study was undertaken to investigate the underlying mechanism asserted by kaolin on tomato physiology by evaluating its effect on leaf, canopy and inner fruit temperatures, gas exchange at the leaf and canopy scales, above ground biomass, yield and fruit quality. The study was carried out under field conditions in Southern Italy. Treatments were plants treated with kaolin-based particle film (Surround ® WP) suspension and untreated plants (control). Kaolin application slightly increased leaf and canopy scale temperatures by 1.0 and 0.4 °C, respectively, transpiration rate decreased at both scales. On calm days (wind speed <0.5 m s −1) with a prevalently clear sky at midday, inner fruit temperature ( t f) of kaolin-treated plants was 4.4 °C lower than the t f of control plants, while in days with clear sky-windy, and cloudy-calm, the t f did not differ. At leaf scale, net assimilation was reduced by 26% in kaolin-coated treatments. Stomatal conductance decreased by 53%, resulting in reductions of 34 and 15% in transpiration and internal CO 2 concentration, respectively. Gas exchange parameters measured at canopy scale were similarly affected. In kaolin-treated plants, assimilation and evapotranspiration rates were reduced by 17 and 20%, respectively, while dark respiration was not affected. Above ground dry biomass decreased by 6.4%. Marketable yield in kaolin-treated plants was 21% higher than those measured in control plants; this is possibly related to the 96 and 79% reduction in sunburned fruit and those damaged by insects, respectively, and to the 9% increase in mean fruit weight. Kaolin treatment increased lycopene fruit content by 16%, but did not affect total soluble solids content, fruit dry matter, juice pH, titratable acidity or tomato fruit firmness. The use of kaolin-based particle film technology would be an effective tool to alleviate heat stress and to reduce water stress in tomato production under arid and semi-arid conditions.

RESPONSE OF DIAPREPES ABBREVIATUS (COLEOPTERA: CURCULIONIDAE) TO APPLICATION CONCENTRATIONS OF A PARTICLE FILM

Kaolin-based particle films were developed for horticultural applications as an environmentally benign method to deter arthropod pests and plant diseases (Glenn et al. 1999). Since the commercialization of a wettable powder formulation (Surround® WP, Engelhard Corp., Iselin, NJ), this product has been examined for applications against pests of temperate fruit trees (Puterka et al. 2000; Knight et al. 2000; Unruh et al. 2000); cotton (Showler 2002); whitefly (Liang & Liu 2002); thrips (Kerns & Wright 2000); and other pests. The value of the film includes deterrence of feeding and oviposition, and beneficial effects on carbon assimilation, leaf temperature, and fruit yield (Glenn et al. 2001). Particle film technology seems especially well suited for use in areas of low rainfall where leaf residues of the product can be maintained without frequent re-application. Use of particle films in the humid subtropical environment of Florida citrus groves may be limited by removal of residues by seasonally heavy rain (Lapointe 2000). In addition to deterring pests (Puterka et al. 2000; Unruh et al. 2000; Knight et al. 2000; Lapointe 2000), particle films have been shown to increase fruit tree productivity in semiarid and subhumid environments by reducing heat stress (Glenn et al. 2001). The humid subtropical environment experienced by citrus trees in Florida presents a different set of challenges for successful use of particle films. Periods of high rainfall are interspersed with dry periods accentuated by highly porous soils and intense solar radiation. Particle films, while effective in the laboratory (Lapointe 2000), may not adhere sufficiently to citrus leaves in the field in Florida to maintain deterrence to Diaprepes root weevils after heavy rains over the entire rainy season (May-October) when adults are active. Prior to establishment of field trials (reported elsewhere), I investigated the feeding and oviposition response of Diaprepes root weevil to varying concentrations of Surround WP. A hand-held sprayer was used to apply the product at three concentrations to bouquets of citrus leaves harvested from Citrus macrophylla Wester seedlings grown in a greenhouse. Methods were similar to those reported by Lapointe (2000). Foliage bouquets were sprayed to runoff with the manufacturer’s recommended concentration (x = 3% wt/ vol), 0.5x, or 0.1x, or with water alone. Foliage was allowed to dry and then placed in screened cages (30 × 30 × 30 cm) containing 5 male and 5 female Diaprepes root weevils. Weevils were obtained from a colony maintained at the U.S. Horticultural Laboratory, Ft. Pierce, FL (for rearing conditions, see Lapointe & Shapiro 1999). Each of the 4 treatments was replicated 3 times for a total of 12 cages and 120 weevils. Cages were randomly arranged on open shelves in a temperature-controlled greenhouse. Each cage was provided with wax paper strips as substrates for oviposition (Wolcott 1933). Bouquets and wax paper strips were removed every 2 days until 17 days and examined for egg masses. Leaf area consumed was assessed by tracing the leaf notches. Tracings were digitally scanned and the resulting files were imported into an image analysis computer program as described by Lapointe (2000). Leaf area consumed and total number of eggs oviposited were analyzed by ANOVA with the type III sum of squares for cage as the error term. Means were compared by the Tukey honestly significant differences (HSD) test (Abacus Concepts 1996). Linear regression was used to calculate the deposition of particle film required to achieve 50% reduction in leaf consumption and oviposition. The deterrent effect of Surround against feeding and oviposition fell off quickly as coverage was reduced in a greenhouse trial. Adult weevils fed untreated citrus leaves over 17 d consumed approximately 3 times as much leaf area as weevils

Season and Cultivar Influence the Fruit Quality Response of Apple Cultivars to Particle Film Treatments

Experiments were performed over 3 years to examine the effect that particle film (PF) treatment had on fruit quality of several apple (Malus ×domestica) cultivars in Washington and West Virginia. In the first study, a highly reflective, white, hydrophilic particle-based kaolin mineral (Surround WP) was applied to `Empire' apple in May and June, on a season-long basis, or not at all. Red fruit color was increased by both the PF treatments compared with no treatment in all years. In a second study, the PF material was applied, starting at petal fall, every week for 6 weeks and then every 2 weeks until harvest to `Empire', `Gala', and `Fuji' trees in West Virginia and to `Cameo', `Fuji', and `Gala' trees in Washington. In the latter study, cultivar response to season-long applications varied by year and location. `Empire' consistently had improved red color with season-long applications of PF materials. `Gala' had greater fruit weight and red color with PF application in 1 of 2 years in West Virginia but not in Washington. `Fuji' had greater fruit weight and soluble solids content and `Cameo' had greater soluble solids, higher starch indices, and greater red color in Washington with the PF application. In these studies, application of a PF never reduced the surface red color in apples. A taste panel did not identify quality differences in `Empire' apples treated with PF vs. the control. Cultivar responses to PF applications were variable due to location and yearly environmental characteristics. While particle film technology has value for insect control and reducing sunburn, it has limited value to enhance fruit color due to the inconsistent response.

Processed kaolin protects fruits from Mediterranean fruit fly infestations

Laboratory and field trials with fruits treated with the processed kaolin ‘Surround WP’ in nectarines, in apples and in persimmons indicated an almost complete protection against infestations of the Mediterranean fruit fly (medfly), Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae). In laboratory trials with ‘Sunsnow’ nectarines, in a choice and no choice tests, female flies avoided landing on treated fruits and no infestations resulted. In field trials against heavy infestations on ‘Gala’ apples, ‘Flamekist’ nectarines and ‘Triumph’ persimmons practically clean fruits were obtained in the processed kaolin sprayed trees. The promising results of these experiments point to the feasibility of using particle film technology composed of a non-toxic material, to avoid medfly damage as an alternative to intensive applications of insecticides presently used in commercial plantations as well as in organic orchards which still lack effective treatment against this pest. This material was approved by the Organic Materials Review Institute in the US.

Engelhard forms pigment alliance with Nippon Sheet Glass, raises prices

Due to rising health concern, the idea of Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) has emerged, especially for growing crops organically. In this context, several innovative technologies have been developed by agricultural scientists, such as the particle film technology (PFT). They are basically aqueous formulations made from chemically inert clay or mineral particles, which are specifically formulated for coating to reduce the damage caused by insects, diseases, solar injury, freeze injury and to improve fruit finish, color, carbon assimilation rate, yield and postharvest fruit quality. The development of the first such kaolin-based formulation, named Surround®, for commercial use was by Engelhard Corporation, Iselin, New Jersey (U.S.A.) in 1999. During the last two decades, a significant amount of research work has been conducted on the development of several such films (Surround® CF, Surround® WP, Raynox®, Cocoon™, Purshade™, Parasol®, Screen®, Snow®, Eclipse™, etc.) and their effects on various agricultural and horticultural crops. Considering the usefulness of these films, we attempted to compile the scattered information on the developed particle films, their modes of action and effects on various horticultural crops, in the form of a review. The review is particularly focused on history, modes of action, application and a variety of effects of particle films on horticultural crops.

A Reflective, Processed-Kaolin Particle Film Affects Fruit Temperature, Radiation Reflection, and Solar Injury in Apple

Particle film technology is a new tool for tree fruit production systems. Trials were performed in Santiago, Chile, and Washington and West Virginia to evaluate the effect of particle film treatments on apple [Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill var domestica (Borkh.) Mansf.] fruit temperature and the incidence of solar injury. Fruit surface temperature was reduced by the application of reflective particles and the amount of temperature reduction was proportional to the amount of particle residue on the fruit surface. Effective solar injury suppression was achieved with spray applications of 45 to 56 kg·ha-1 of a reflective, processed-kaolin particle film material in concentrations ranging from 3% to 12% in some of the locations. The timing of application to suppress solar injury was not clearly defined. The processed-kaolin particle film material was highly reflective to the ultraviolet wavelengths and this characteristic may be important in reducing solar injury to both fruit and leaves.