Tropical rainforests are critical biodiversity hotspots but are increasingly threatened by anthropogenic pressures that degrade their structure and ecological integrity. Monitoring environmental indicators of forest health is essential for assessing the effectiveness of management interventions. This study evaluated the effects of contrasting forest management regimes on stand structure, regeneration, and biodiversity in Kakamega Forest. Two regimes were assessed: the strictly protected Buyangu block under government management and the participatory forest management (PFM) block, subdivided into Isecheno (low disturbance), Ikuywa (medium disturbance), and Ileho (high disturbance), representing a clear gradient of management intensity and human pressure. We employed systematic transect surveys and plot-based sampling to quantify structural, regeneration and biodiversity indicators. Significant differences emerged across management regimes and zones. The Isecheno zone under PFM exhibited stronger forest structural condition, with a basal area (BA) of 89 ± 9 m2ha⁻1 and tree species richness of 50 ± 2 species, compared to Buyangu's lower richness (42 ± 3 species). In contrast, Ileho showed greater anthropogenic pressure, with logging levels far exceeding those in other sites (150 ± 20 stumps ha⁻1), open canopy (50% closure), and reduced species richness (40 ± 1 species). Buyangu displayed the highest canopy closure (85%) and dead tree density (87 ± 15ha⁻1), reflecting minimal human disturbance and a closed-canopy stand structure. These results demonstrate that integrating community engagement, robust environmental monitoring, and adaptive, site-specific strategies can improve forest health indicators while supporting conservation and livelihoods. The findings provide transferable lessons for tropical forests worldwide facing similar conservation challenges.

Climate change mitigation strategies have long focused on the idea of carbon sequestration and did not consider the opportunities of a greater range of forest management. The article analysed how Participatory Forest Management (PFM) could be used to address climate change and to ensure sustainable forest management in the Karura Forest in Kenya. It explored how PFM can be used to facilitate the carbon sequestration process, improve biodiversity, livelihoods and empower communities. The study employed a mixed-methods design, incorporating surveys conducted among community forest association members, key informants, focus group discussions (FGDs), and an analysis of changes in forest cover. The sample size (n = 209) employed by the study matched that of the Conservationists in the Friends of Karura Community Forest Association (FKCFA), Resident Association Community Leaders and Government Ministries, Departments and Agencies. PFM has been attributed to the increase in carbon captured in forests. The forests also play a significant role in mitigating the effects of climate change, which is one of the most pressing issues in the world, as they absorb greenhouse gases. The Karura Forest Ecosystem is situated near Nairobi County in Kenya, and it is threatened by the unsustainable use of resources and the pressure of population growth. PFM, which entails the participation of local communities in forest management, has been a solution to consider. PFM has vast potential, and its potential in enhancing the capability of Karura Forest to address climate change issues is being considered. The paper discusses the effects of PFM on climate change mitigation programs, drawing on theoretical factors from the Common-Pool-Resource theory and environmental governance principles. The findings demonstrate that PFM has a positive impact on various fronts, including forest restoration, enhanced carbon capture, effective forest management, local empowerment and stewardship, and biodiversity protection. Results show that PFM in Karura Forest has increased carbon stocks, restored biodiversity, and enabled local communities by utilizing sustainable resources and generating income. The paper emphasizes that PFM is an all-inclusive approach that extends beyond carbon sequestration to support the goals of sustainable development.

The increasing dependence of rural communities on forest resources contributes significantly to deforestation and ecosystem degradation in West Africa. The Ouémé Supérieur Classified Forest (OSCF), one of Benin’s largest forest reserves, is under growing anthropogenic pressure. This study assessed the spatial distribution and relationships between key degradation drivers (anthropogenic disturbances)—logging, agriculture, charcoal production, fire, and grazing—in the OSCF. Field inventories were conducted in 300 plots of 500 m2 each, organized across 15 transects. Data were analyzed using presence/absence indices, frequency calculations, Friedman tests, simple correspondence analysis, and linear regressions. Results showed that disturbances are unevenly distributed across the forest. Logging and agriculture emerged as the most frequent pressures, with agricultural activities strongly associated with transects near densely populated villages. Regression analysis revealed a relatively strong correlation between distance from edge to the interior of the forest and agricultural area (adjusted R2 = 0.61). Logging and fire-related activities are concentrated at the forest edge, while agriculture expanded toward the interior. Logging is present in all plots sampled. Chi-square tests revealed significant associations between agriculture, charcoal production, and fire. These findings highlight the complex and interlinked nature of the anthropogenic disturbances and underscore the need for locally tailored, participatory forest management strategies.

ABSTRACT The Yayu Coffee Forest Biosphere Reserve (YCFBR) in Southwest Ethiopia is critical for the local economy and global environmental sustainability. However, the reserve faces significant challenges due to land use and land cover (LULC) changes driven by anthropogenic disturbances. Standardized data on landscape dynamics and forest ecosystem services, particularly for YCFBR is essential for effective management of the reserve. This research investigated the spatial and temporal LULC dynamics of the YCFBR over a span of 26 years (1996–2022) by analyzing Landsat satellite imagery from 1996, 2010, and 2022, categorizing LULC into six classes. These are dense forest, farmland, grazing land, open forest, settlement, and shrub land. Starting our study from 1996 allows direct comparison between pre-reserve (1996–2010) and after the establishment of the biosphere reserve (2010–2022). The results showed that, before biosphere establishment dense forest land decreased by 6,947.75 ha (−5.02%) (1996–2010), then increased to 6,094.67 ha (4.40%) after biosphere establishment (2010–2022), resulting in a net gain of 29,411.4 ha (21.22%) over the entire study period. Similarly, open forestland experienced a decline of 24,218.46 ha (−17.49%) pre-establishment, followed by an increase to 23,017.29 ha (16.62%) post-establishment, with a negligible net change of 33.7 ha (0.02%). These results underscore the effective afforestation efforts observed since the biosphere’s designation. Significant differences in species richness across the reserve’s zones were also identified, with the core zone exhibiting the highest diversity compared to lower diversity in buffer and transitional zones. Key drivers of afforestation include participatory forest management, and national green development initiatives. Conversely, major deforestation drivers include agricultural expansion, overgrazing, illegal logging, the Yayu fertilizer industry, rock and coal mining activities, and investments lacking Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs). This study emphasizes the positive implications of zonation for forest conservation and the vital role of community involvement in sustainable forest management. Therefore, zonation-based and communities’ livelihood assessments to modify forest management to suit unique needs of each forest zone is essential for promoting sustainable forest management (SFM) practices in the area. Furthermore, it highlights the need for pre-project social assessments, alternative livelihoods, and heightened awareness among local communities and government stakeholders to mitigate deforestation impacts and promote conservation.

ABSTRACT High mountain forests are critical socio‐ecological systems, sustaining biodiversity, regulating hydrological cycles, and supporting the livelihoods of millions globally. Across Africa and other tropical regions, community‐based forest governance has emerged as a pivotal framework for reconciling conservation and livelihood objectives, aligning with global initiatives such as the Convention on Biological Diversity and the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. In Nigeria, the Obudu and Mambilla highlands represent fragile montane ecosystems increasingly threatened by deforestation, unsustainable land use, and climate change. Despite the strategic ecological and cultural importance of these highland forests, limited scholarly attention has been given to the role of local communities in their management and conservation. This paper foregrounds community‐led and multi‐actor approaches to forest governance as vital pathways for addressing the intertwined challenges of environmental degradation and rural livelihoods. By situating the Nigerian highland experience within broader African and global debates on participatory forest management, the paper draws on case studies from the Obudu Plateau and Mambilla Highlands to examine traditional ecological knowledge, cultural practices, and evolving partnerships between local actors, government agencies, and non‐governmental organizations. The paper highlights how community stewardship practices counteract the drivers of forest loss while navigating structural barriers such as weak policy implementation and land tenure insecurity. It also explores how emerging policy frameworks including Nigeria's National Forest Policy (2020) and community‐based forest management guidelines shape local agency, rights, and institutional collaboration within highland conservation. The paper argues that strengthening local participation through inclusive, adaptive governance frameworks is essential for sustaining highland forest ecosystems and securing socio‐economic resilience for upland communities. By linking local initiatives to wider regional and international governance frameworks, this paper contributes to global debates on decolonial and justice‐oriented conservation models. This approach opens transformative possibilities for reimagining conservation beyond technocratic solutions, centering the agency of Indigenous and rural actors in environmental decision‐making.

Forests and wetlands are also critical ecosystems that are harbored by biodiversity, are modulated by climate, and are supplied with vital ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, water filtration, and flood mitigation. Collectively more than 1.3 trillion tons of carbon are held by them, with approximately 25% of the global carbon capture being captured by tropical forests alone. Only 6% of the Earth’s surface is covered by wetlands. 40% of all species are harbored by them, and carbon is stored by them at 10 times the rate of terrestrial forests. Climate change is rapidly changing its structure and functions. Forest degradation and wetland loss are being driven by increasing global temperatures, unpredictable precipitation trends, more frequent wildfires, and sea level rise, with an estimated 4.7 million hectares of forest area being lost every year and 35% of the world’s wetlands since 1970 being lost. Global forest and wetland conservation trends under climate stress are summarized by this review, and the efficacy of global frameworks such as RESS+, the Ramsar Convention, and ecosystem-based adaptation approaches is assessed. It also features local community-led conservation strategies with proven results, including Nepal’s participatory forest management and Indonesia’s mangrove rehabilitation projects. The methodology used in this literature review is sourced from Google Scholar, PubMed, and the ScienceDirect database. Although advances have been made, much remains to be done, including closing the financing gap, improving governance, and reconciling land use conflicts. The review concludes by recommending combined climate-resilient conservation strategies that prioritize cross-sector cooperation, technological instruments (e.g., GIS remote sensing), and indigenous knowledge. Strengthening both global and local measures is essential to protect these ecosystems from mounting climate threats.

Abstract This study evaluates the impact of a participatory forest management (PFM) program on forest structure and cover change in the Guangua Elala Natural Forest, Ethiopia. A comparison of current vegetation data with baseline information collected by Guangua Woreda agricultural experts was conducted to assess structural and coverage changes. Vegetation data were gathered from 44 plots, each measuring 20 m × 20 m, to capture tree and shrub density, height, and diameter distributions. Additionally, cloud-free Landsat-7 and Landsat-8 images from 2012 and 2021 were analyzed to determine forest cover change over time. Data analysis included computation of vegetation metrics such as stem density, height, and diameter classes, with t-tests applied to compare these variables before and after PFM implementation. Results indicate that the forest displays a healthy, inverted ‘J’ shape population structure, which signifies robust regeneration with higher densities in lower diameter and height classes. Forest and shrub land cover expanded slightly after the PFM program, with increases of 0.69 % and 0.27 %, respectively. This suggests that PFM positively impacts both the structural health and coverage of the forest by promoting regeneration and conserving existing cover. Overall, this study concludes that PFM contributes to the stability and improvement of forest ecosystems in the region. Expanding PFM initiatives to neighboring forests could further enhance forest conservation and provide sustainable benefits to local communities. This research underscores the effectiveness of participatory approaches in managing forest resources for both ecological and social benefits.

Participatory forest management constitutes an important pathway toward sustainable and inclusive forest governance, mediated by local social, cultural, and institutional dynamics. This study presented pioneering research that applied the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to investigate the intentions of non-state forest owners in the Czech Republic to involve the public in forest management planning. Data were obtained from 92 valid responses and analyzed using covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM). The results showed that attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control had a positive influence on behavioral intention. However, only subjective norms had a statistically significant effect ( β = 0.61, p = 0.021), while the effects of attitudes ( β = 0.10, p = 0.515) and perceived behavioral control (β = 0.26, p = 0.277) were not significant. The model explained 86.31% of the variance in behavioral intention, demonstrating strong explanatory power despite the modest sample size. These findings provide preliminary evidence that social expectations from professional peers, local communities, and family networks play a dominant role in shaping forest owners’ willingness to adopt participatory planning approaches. Theoretically, this study extends the TPB framework by showing that normative influence predominates when attitudes and perceived control are already favorable, underscoring the importance of social legitimacy in structured institutional contexts. From a policy perspective, the results highlight the need to strengthen collective norms and institutional support through forest owner associations, peer learning, and transparent governance mechanisms. Such strategies can enhance social legitimacy and foster broader, more sustainable public participation in forest management planning.

Arrangements and performance of participatory forest management cooperatives in the dry forests of Northwestern Ethiopia

This study evaluated the influence of demographic variables on Czech citizens’ behavioral intentions (IN) to participate in forest management planning, by examining differences in the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) model across demographic groups. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) with multi-group analysis was applied to test how age, gender, education, income, occupation, area of residence, and forest ownership moderated the relationships among attitude (AT), subjective norms (SN), and perceived behavioral control (PBC). The results revealed that gender, education, area of residence, and income significantly moderated the influence of TPB constructs on participatory intention, while age, occupation, and forest ownership inquiry showed weaker or non-significant effects. Females exhibited stronger SN effects (β = 0.929), whereas males relied more heavily on PBC (β = 1.065). Higher-income respondents (>1,600 EUR /month) demonstrated a stronger PBC effect (β = 0.597), while lower-income participants were more influenced by SN (β = 0.933). Participants with a high school education or less were slightly more influenced by SN (β = 0.902) compared to college-educated respondents (β = 0.703). Additionally, suburban and rural residents were slightly more influenced by PBC (β = 0.671), whereas urban residents were more influenced by SN (β = 0.629). These findings highlight the importance of demographic and experiential diversity in shaping environmental behavior and provide actionable insights for developing inclusive and effective participatory forest management strategies.

Abstract Forests play a vital role in supporting local livelihoods by providing resources and services that underpin cultural, economic, and social well-being. In Kenya’s Kakamega rainforest, participatory forest management is challenged by population pressures, yet the impact of ecosystem service (ES) flows on local communities remains insufficiently understood. This study examined how communities perceive and use forest ES and how these perceptions vary across socio-economic groups. We used a mixed-methods approach combining qualitative data (17 key informant interviews, 8 focus group discussions) and quantitative data (surveys of 453 households). Statistical analyses (Kruskal–Wallis, Chi-square, Mann–Whitney U, ANOVA) revealed 20 recognized ES, with firewood identified as the most critical (acknowledged by 86% of respondents). Provisioning ES were mainly used for domestic purposes, particularly by male respondents and individuals aged 36–48. Wealthier households placed greater value on cultural ES and associated them strongly with natural forests (2 out of 4). Significant differences in ES importance, use, and supporting land-use types were observed across wealth, age, and gender groups. These findings highlight the importance of management strategies that incorporate diverse community perspectives and promote the equitable and sustainable use of forest resources.

Contributions of participatory forest management for sustainable livelihoods and forest conservation in Ethiopia

In developing countries, participatory forest management (PFM) has emerged as a promising strategy for enhancing forest conservation and boosting rural livelihoods. This research investigates the impact of PFM on household living standards and changes in forest cover in the Sagi-Tagata State Forest, situated in the Alle District of southwestern Ethiopia. A mixed-methods approach was employed, incorporating household surveys (n = 284), focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and analysis of satellite imagery spanning from 2003 to 2023. Data were analyzed using SPSS Version 24 for descriptive statistics, Wilcoxon signed-rank tests to assess livelihood changes before and after PFM, and one-way ANOVA with LSD post hoc tests for income diversification. Binary logistic regression identified factors influencing PFM participation, including education, gender, age, landholding size, training, credit access, and proximity to forests and markets. Cloud-free Landsat images (2003, 2013, 2023) from USGS were used for land use/land cover analysis. The findings reveal that PFM has led to considerable enhancements in income diversification for households and improved access to forest resources. Despite a reduction in forest cover from 89% in 2003 to 62% in 2023, the pace of forest degradation notably slowed following the implementation of PFM. Logistic regression analysis identified education level, access to credit, landholding size, and proximity to forest resources as key factors influencing participation in PFM. These results emphasize that, when underpinned by suitable institutional and economic frameworks, PFM can effectively facilitate sustainable forest management and rural development.

Community engagement plays a critical role in effective forest governance and climate change adaptation in East Africa. This qualitative review synthesizes evidence from 22 peer-reviewed studies published between 2010 and 2024, using participatory governance theory to examine how rural communities engage in forest management amid climate pressures. The analysis centers on three themes: forms and levels of participation, barriers to meaningful engagement, and implications for climate-resilient forest governance. Findings indicate that while frameworks such as Participatory Forest Management (PFM), Collaborative Forest Management (CFM), and Community Forest Associations (CFAs) have broadened community roles, genuine participation is limited. Across the reviewed literature, over 70% of studies reported that engagement remained superficial due to centralized decision-making, insecure land tenure, elite capture, and inequitable benefit-sharing. Conversely, customary institutions were highlighted in nearly half of the studies as offering adaptive, context-specific governance solutions—yet these systems are often sidelined in national policies. Additionally, climate finance mechanisms like REDD+ were noted in 8 studies to risk deepening exclusion if local voices are not meaningfully integrated. The review brings to light the need for transformative engagement rooted in secure rights, equitable power-sharing, recognition of indigenous knowledge, and strong accountability mechanisms. Moreover, these findings contribute to ongoing regional and global debates on climate justice, decolonizing conservation, and the future of community-based natural resource management in East Africa.

Efforts to conserve forest resources have been significant; however, sustainable conservation cannot be achieved without the active involvement of local communities. Participatory Forest Management (PFM) is recognized as an effective strategy for the long-term conservation of Ethiopia's remaining natural forests, particularly in the Bale zone, where community participation is essential. Despite this, the impacts of PFM have not been thoroughly evaluated or documented. This study aims to assess the effects of PFM on forest conditions in selected areas of the Bale zone. The research compares three forests practicing PFM with three that do not. To gather insights on the perceived status of these forests, the study employed semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and field observations. These qualitative methods provided a comprehensive understanding of local community perspectives regarding forest health and management practices. Data on forest parameters were collected through systematic sampling, using transects lines at 250-meter intervals across 152 plots, ensuring an equal number of plots for both forest types. Key forest metrics, including diameter at breast height (DBH), tree height, and the number of seedlings and mature trees, were analyzed using Microsoft Excel and various diversity indexes. This quantitative analysis allowed for a robust comparison of forest health indicators between PFM and non-PFM areas. The findings indicate that forests managed under PFM exhibit higher average biodiversity indexes and a greater number of stems per hectare compared to non-PFM forests. Specifically, the average number of trees increased significantly in PFM areas from their initial years to 2018. Additionally, the mean basal area also showed substantial growth in PFM forests, indicating improved forest health and productivity. The study recommends expanding PFM initiatives to all forests in the Bale zone, including smaller patches. It also highlights the need to focus on regenerating seedlings, as they face pressure from animal browsing, which could hinder forest recovery and health. This research contributes valuable insights into the effectiveness of community-based forest management practices in enhancing forest conditions in the Bale zone.

ABSTRACT The direct and indirect use values and the nonuse value of environmental goods/services are often discussed in literature, which all together constitute the total economic value of environmental goods/services in question. The Simlipal National Park in India offers several ecosystem services and the forest dwellers are profoundly reliant on the forest. This study estimates the option value of the Park (which comes under the nonuse value) from the perspective of forest dwellers through creating a hypothetical market for valuation. Utilizing contingent valuation method under both closed-ended and open-ended bidding formats, the study estimates the willingness to pay of forest dwellers for sustainable use of natural resources. This type of valuation exercise maintains relevance in developing policies for natural resource conservation through participatory forest management since both the stakeholders – government and forest dwellers have incentives for preservation. Findings of the study expose the eagerness of forest dwellers to pay for the proposed upgraded forest conservation program, even by abstaining from present consumption of non-timber forest products, so as to enjoy all kinds of forest ecosystem services in future.

IntroductionThis research explores the perceptions of local forest communities in Kakamega Forest Ecosystem (KFE) regarding forest conditions, associated threats, Ecosystem services (ES) provision, and associated challenges with a focus on socioeconomic differences (wealth categories). Effective forest management is imperative for sustaining ES, but in KFE, threats to the forest and challenges local communities face hinder their provision.MethodsMixed method research was utilized, with qualitative data collected through Key Informant Interviews (KII), Focus Group Discussions (FGD), and quantitative data gathered through household surveys.Results and discussionThe findings indicated that wealthier households exhibited a positive correlation with perceptions of unchanged ES provision, while poorer households showed a positive correlation with perceptions of decreased ES provision. Local communities generally perceived an improvement in forest conditions across the wealth categories. However, unexpectedly, poorer households associated highly improved forest conditions with decreased ES provision, indicating challenges related to access to ES. In contrast, middle and rich households expressed a positive correlation with perceptions of severely degraded forest conditions. Illegal logging emerged as the most significant threat to KFE, regardless of wealth category, followed by a lack of awareness of conservation efforts, with significant differences in perception across wealth categories. Surprisingly, animal grazing was perceived as a relatively low threat, with significant differences between wealth groups highlighting the importance of land ownership. The allocation of harvesting rights to non-local community members was identified as the most significant challenge faced by the local community, irrespective of wealth. Additionally, the prohibition of maize planting in the Plantation Establishment for Livelihood Improvement Scheme (PELIS) emerged as another major challenge across wealth categories, underscoring the importance of PELIS lands for cultivating staple foods. The electric fence was also perceived as a challenge by the local community, with significant differences between rich and poor households, reflecting the greater reliance of poorer households on provisioning ES.ConclusionThis research provides valuable policy insights on community outreach, agricultural crops, harvesting, and the monitoring of participatory forest management (PFM). The findings support more inclusive, sustainable, and equitable management of KFE and other forest ecosystems to enhance the wellbeing and livelihoods of local forest communities.

Since the 1990s, Sri Lanka’s central government has adopted a Participatory Forest Management (PFM) strategy. However, the success of this approach remains unclear, largely due to the absence of impact assessments. In the present study, a qualitative approach was employed to determine whether Sri Lanka’s PFM strategy is a myth or reality. To this end, an analysis was carried out into the genesis of PFM and the aspects of community inclusion. Two case studies were examined to assess local impacts and responses to PFM activities. The findings reveal that, while there have been some positive outcomes, inadequate stakeholder engagement, unequal power dynamics, and lack of tenure security are evident weaknesses of the strategy.

This study was carried out at 10 randomly selected fringe villages of Buxa Tiger Reserve (BTR) in the Terai region of West Bengal, India through personal interviews with 100 randomly selected respondents. The study documented 102 non-timber forest products (NTFPs) that were utilized throughout the year. In the local weekly market, 28 NTFPs were found to be traded by the collectors. The study shows that without proper price mechanisms and marketing channels; the residents cannot obtain fair prices for their products. The study found only 10 NTFPs that were prominently traded with the involvement of middlemen and traders along with the royalty imposed by the State Forest Department. The MSPs computed for these nine NTFPs were 25–200% higher than the prices the collectors were selling to the traders. The nationalization of NTFPs through MSPs will help their effective marketing, ensuring an adequate income for the collectors, which will lead to their sustainable harvest and conservation through participatory forest management. Introducing MSPs for NTFPs with an efficient procurement network can advance the economic status of the inhabitants. We recommend increasing the inhabitants’ capacity to collect, store, process, and market NTFPs with active policy, institutional, and infrastructural support.

The study investigated gender participation in sustainable forest management in Cross River State, Nigeria. Multistage sampling procedure was used to select 135 respondents. Data was collected with the aid of structured questionnaire and analyzed using descriptive statistics and t-test at 5% level of significance. Socio-economic characteristics showed that 59.3% of forest users were males and 64.5% had primary education and below. Users were aware of sustainable forest management practices like: participation in forest management committee meetings (100%), prohibition of deforestation (98.5%), and membership into forest management committees (95.6%). Concerning participation in community forest management activities, 3.6% women participated in forest patrol activities against 27.5% men, 14.6% women belonged to community forest management groups compared to 40% men. Major factors that constrained women’s participation were: traditional gender roles/responsibilities (MS= 4.37) and high level of poverty (MS=4.32). For men they were: stringent laws on accessing/harvesting forest resources (MS= 4.25) and age of forest user (MS= 4.17). The t-test results showed that when equal variances were assumed, there was no significant difference in the level of participation in community forest management activities between the males and females [t (133) = -.723, p=.472, 95% CI (-.140, .065)]. The study recommended that technical support to community members should focus on strategies that motivate them to get actively involved in sustainable management of their forest.