Abstract South Asia experiences the hottest temperatures in the pre-monsoon season, followed by intense humid heat during the early summer monsoon. We examine trends and drivers of humid heat extremes in both seasons. We find that since early 2000s, monsoon season humid heat extremes have warmed twice as fast as the long-term rate since the 1950s, with their duration increasing from ~2 days in the 1950s to several weeks in present-day climate. This intensification in parts of South Asia is driven by peak humidity occurring ~2 weeks earlier since 2000, coinciding with higher temperatures. Pre-monsoon humid heat extremes have increased across most areas, except Western South Asia, where they have declined since 2000. Declining humidity levels drive pre-monsoon trends, while elevated humidity during precipitation events that precede humid-heat events explain their monsoon season intensification. Our findings call for targeted responses to escalating humid heat that threatens health, productivity, and the economy.

Fish-based fermented foods are integral to traditional diets across Asia, Africa, and Europe, valued for both their nutritional role and cultural significance. Increasingly, they are also studied for potential functional properties such as probiotic activity and bioactive compounds, yet their global research landscape has not been systematically assessed. This study presents a bibliometric analysis of global research on fish-based fermented foods published between 2015 and 2024. Data were retrieved from the Scopus database and analyzed using the Bibliometrix R package and Biblioshiny interface. A total of 263 documents were identified across 145 sources, authored by 1,150 researchers. The field has shown rapid growth, with an annual publication increase of 27.01% and an average of 28.48 citations per article, indicating strong scholarly visibility. Most contributions originated from East and Southeast Asia, particularly China, South Korea, and Thailand, reflecting the cultural and culinary importance of fermented fish in these regions. Author productivity followed Lotka’s law, with a small group of core researchers driving sustained output. Keyword co-occurrence and thematic mapping revealed dominant clusters around fermented fish sauce, lactic acid bacteria, and microbial diversity, alongside emerging themes related to fatty acids and bacterial communities. Despite these advances, the analysis highlighted notable gaps, including limited international collaboration and underrepresentation of research from Africa and parts of South Asia. These findings suggest that while the field is expanding and diversifying, greater cross-regional engagement and methodological innovation are needed to fully explore the nutritional, functional, and socio-economic dimensions of fish-based fermented foods.

This study, based on global AERONET observation data from 2023, employs a synergistic inversion algorithm that integrates aerosol optical, microphysical, and chemical properties to retrieve the global distribution of aerosol parameters. We find that the global annual mean aerosol optical depth (AOD), fine-mode AOD (AODf), coarse-mode AOD (AODc), absorbing aerosol optical depth (AAOD), single scattering albedo (SSA) are 0.20, 0.15, 0.04, 0.024, and 0.87, respectively. From the perspective of spatial distribution, in densely populated urban areas, AOD is mainly determined by AODf, while in the areas dominated by natural sources, AODc contributes more. Combined with the optical and microphysical properties, fine-mode aerosols dominate optical contributions, whereas coarse-mode aerosols dominate volume contributions. In terms of chemical components, fine-mode aerosols at most global sites are primarily carbonaceous. The mass concentrations of black carbon (BC) exceed 10 mg m−2 in parts of South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Arabian Peninsula, while the mass fraction of brown carbon (BrC) accounts for more than 16% in regions such as the Sahara, Western Africa, and the North Atlantic Ocean reference areas. The dust (DU) dominates in coarse mode, with the annual mean DU fraction reaching 86.07% in the Sahara. In coastal and humid regions, the sea salt (SS) and water content (AWc) contribute significantly to the aerosol mass, with fractions reaching 13.13% and 34.39%. The comparison of aerosol properties in the hemispheres reveals that the aerosol loading in the Northern Hemisphere caused by human activities is higher than in the Southern Hemisphere, and the absorption properties are also stronger. We also find that the uneven distribution of global observation sites leads to a significant underestimation of aerosol absorption and coarse-mode features in global mean values, highlighting the adverse impact of observational imbalance on the assessment of global aerosol properties. By combining analyses of aerosol optical, microphysical, and chemical properties, our study offers a quantitative foundation for understanding the spatiotemporal distribution of global aerosols and their emission contributions, providing valuable insights for climate change assessment and air quality research.

The neglected tropical disease schistosomiasis continues to be a global health concern, especially in low- and middle-income countries, with at least 250 million people infected worldwide and a further 779 million at risk of infection. Schistosoma japonicum, which is found in parts of South Asia, causes intestinal schistosomiasis in humans, as well as infecting up to forty other mammalian species. Therefore, novel diagnostics that can detect S. japonicum are desirable. In this study, we have further developed and refined the ‘SNAILS’ DNA-based biosensor technology for the detection of schistosomes and have applied this to the specific detection of S. japonicum. Of the four new ‘SNAILS’ probe pairs developed, one of our optimised designs successfully detected and differentiated between genomic DNA isolated from 16 S. japonicum cercariae isolated from sites in the People’s Republic of China and laboratory-derived Schistosoma mansoni cercariae.

Geogenic contamination of groundwater presents a substantial threat to the enduring production and sustainability of irrigated fruit orchards, especially in arid and semi-arid regions where over 60% of horticultural irrigation depends on groundwater sources. Groundwater quality is increasingly threatened by geogenic contamination, presenting a critical global issue. Geogenic contaminants, such as fluoride and arsenic, combined with agricultural practices and inadequate wastewater treatment, pose a significant threat to groundwater. Concentrations of elements including arsenic, fluoride, boron, iron, and sodium often exceed acceptable thresholds. For instance, arsenic (As) levels up to 0.5 ppm have been reported in parts of South Asia, far exceeding the WHO guidelines limit of 0.01 mg/L. Boron concentrations above 2.0 ppm and fluoride concentrations exceeding 1.5 ppm are prevalent in impacted aquifers. Pollution consequences are far reaching, impacting agricultural ecosystems and human health as polluted water infiltrates the food chain via irrigation. These challenges are compounded by climate change and water scarcity, which further strain water sources, including those used in agriculture. Addressing groundwater contamination requires a multi-faceted approach. Strategies include developing crops that can tolerate toxicants, improving irrigation techniques, and employing advanced wastewater treatment technologies. This study solidifies current knowledge concerning the uptake processes and physiological effects of various pollutants in fruit crops. This review emphasizes the synergistic toxicity of many pollutants, identifies gaps in knowledge in species-specific tolerance, and emphasizes the dearth of comprehensive mitigating frameworks. Potential solutions, such as salt-tolerant rootstocks, gypsum amendments, and alternative irrigation timing, are examined to enhance resilient orchard systems in geogenically challenged areas.

ABSTRACTThe COVID‐19 pandemic has reshaped global health; however, the long‐term burden of long COVID remains poorly understood, especially in low‐ and middle‐income countries (LMICs), where limited surveillance and data gaps may obscure a substantial and sustained impact. Using the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2021 framework, we previously assessed the direct COVID‐19 burden—including incidence, prevalence, mortality, and disability‐adjusted life‐years (DALYs)—across 920 locations during 2020–2021. In this study, we focus on years lived with disability (YLDs), particularly in 2021, as a potential early indicator to identify locations and populations that may be at higher risk of long COVID burden in subsequent years (e.g., 2022–2023). We also examine patterns of inequality to highlight vulnerable groups. Our findings are consistent with multiple large‐scale studies on long COVID and suggest that YLDs may serve as a useful early proxy for ongoing burden. Importantly, we identify notably higher age‐standardized YLD rates in LMICs—especially in Sub‐Saharan Africa and in parts of South Asia and Eastern Europe. These areas, previously underexplored in long COVID research, might be particularly susceptible to its effects. Among the top 10 countries with the highest age‐standardized YLD rates in 2021, 80% fell within the low, low‐middle, and middle Socio‐demographic Index (SDI) categories. These high age‐standardized YLD rates may point to systemic vulnerabilities and entrenched structural health disparities, indicating a potential for considerable and enduring long COVID burden that could persist to the present day in the absence of targeted interventions. Furthermore, our inequality analysis underscores that while both advantaged and disadvantaged groups in LMICs require attention, the most disadvantaged groups warrant special focus due to their more severe resource constraints and restricted capacity for resilience‐building. Overall, this study supports calls for stronger surveillance, expanded access to rehabilitation, and better integration of long COVID care into universal health coverage. Continued GBD updates will be essential for monitoring trends and guiding responsive public health strategies.

Indian mustard, scientifically known as Brassica juncea L., is one of the most important oilseed crops cultivated in India and other parts of South Asia. Its significance stems from both its economic value and agronomic adaptability. A field experiment was conducted during the Rabi season of 2024–25 at the Agricultural Farm of Mewar University, Gangrar, Chittorgarh (Rajasthan) to evaluate the impact of integrated nutrient management (INM) on the growth, yield, quality, and economic returns of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L.). The study, laid out in a Randomized Block Design (RBD) with eight treatment combinations replicated thrice, involved varying levels of recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) combined with two levels of vermicompost (2.0 and 5.0 t ha⁻¹), along with a control. The experimental soil was clay loam, slightly saline (EC 0.95 dS/m), and moderately fertile. The results showed significant improvements in plant growth, yield attributes, and quality parameters due to INM practices. The treatment comprising 100% RDF + vermicompost @ 5.0 t ha⁻¹ recorded the highest values for plant height (173.94 cm), dry matter accumulation (20.93 g/plant), number of branches (12.32), siliquae per plant (211.04), seeds per siliqua (18.14), test weight (3.42 g), seed yield (1675 kg/ha), and stover yield (4832 kg/ha). This treatment also achieved the highest net return (₹68,250/ha) and benefit-cost ratio (1.97). The findings suggest that the integrated application of 100% RDF with 5.0 t ha⁻¹ vermicompost is optimal for enhancing the productivity and profitability of Indian mustard under similar agro-climatic conditions.

In practice, urinary tract disorders are increasingly reported in dromedary camels, particularly in regions where environmental stress and limited resources prevail. Our primary goal in writing this review was to provide a simple, accessible, and practical data tailored for veterinary clinicians working with dromedary camels in remote and resource-limited environments. These veterinarians often operate under harsh conditions such as pastoral regions of North Africa, the Middle East, and parts of South Asia, with very basic tools and limited access to advanced diagnostic equipment. Therefore, we intentionally structured this manuscript to be practical and user-friendly in such settings, emphasizing clinical relevance and practicality over exhaustive academic depth. The review is structured to highlight the main urinary disorders affecting dromedary camels, with a focus on their incidence, clinical presentation, and sonographic characteristics. While not exhaustive in academic detail, this review maintains scientific accuracy with a focus on practical application. The first section discusses the incidence and trends of various urinary tract disorders observed in dromedary camels. The second section provides an overview of the ultrasonographic anatomy of the urinary system in healthy camels. The third and main section focuses on the ultrasonographic findings associated with urinary tract disorders in affected camels that contains illustrative images of published case reports as well as clinical studies. This section is further divided into seven subsections: (1) pyelonephritis and renal abscesses, (2) urinary tract calculi, (3) urine retention, dribbling, and anuria, (4) urinary bladder rupture, (5) urethral rupture, (6) cystitis, and (7) urinary neoplasia. A thorough understanding of the pathophysiology of urinary tract diseases in dromedary camels is essential for developing effective treatment and control strategies considering normal variation or age-related differences. If appropriate, the review discusses also treatment options or preventive measures based on sonographic findings. By presenting recent research findings, this review aims to raise awareness and guide future strategies for the diagnosis and management of urinary tract diseases in dromedary camels, ultimately contributing to improved health outcomes in both domestic and wild populations.

The burden of refraction disorders in 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2021: A systematic analysis from the Global Burden of Disease 2021

Background: Renal colic, often caused by renal calculi, is one of the most common urological emergencies and significantly affects adult populations worldwide. Its development is influenced by several interrelated factors, including hydration status, dietary patterns, genetic predisposition, and existing comorbidities. In regions with variable healthcare accessibility, such as parts of South Asia, identifying modifiable risk factors is crucial to reducing the incidence and burden of this condition. Objective: To assess the prevalence of renal calculi in adults presenting with acute renal colic and to examine associated demographic, dietary, and lifestyle risk factors using ultrasound as a diagnostic tool. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted at the Radiology Departments of RMI Teaching Hospital and Alkhidmat Blood Bank and Diagnostic Center, Peshawar, between July and October 2024. A total of 196 adults aged 18 to 60 years with acute renal colic symptoms underwent ultrasound evaluation. Participants were selected using a stratified sampling method and assessed via a semi-structured questionnaire addressing demographics, lifestyle, diet, family history, and comorbidities. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 25. Chi-square tests and logistic regression were employed to identify significant associations and predictors. Results: Renal calculi were diagnosed in 17% of participants. The highest prevalence was seen in the 31–40 years age group (35.7%), with males comprising 61.2% of cases. Urban residents represented 55.1%. Significant associations were observed between renal colic and low water intake (<4 glasses/day; p < 0.001), high intake of salty/sugary foods (58.2%; p < 0.001), oxalate-rich foods (40.8%; p = 0.001), and low calcium intake (57.1%; p < 0.001). Comorbidities such as obesity (24.5%), hypertension (21.4%), gout (12.2%), and diabetes (9.7%) were also significantly associated (p = 0.016). Conclusion: The study underscores the strong link between renal colic and modifiable factors such as hydration and diet. Preventive strategies focusing on increased water intake and balanced nutrition are essential to reducing the risk of renal calculi in adult populations.

In Sri Lanka, climate change and recurrent droughts pose significant threats to agricultural communities. Village water storage tanks have been used in countries in South Asia since the third millennium BC. According to the National Tanks Survey, Sri Lanka has some 23,000 small tanks of 80ha or less; however, 21 percent are currently non-functional due to decades of neglect. This study designs a National Prioritisation Index for the rejuvenation of small tanks, employing a geospatial approach. Our research disaggregates district-level statistics at a 1km resolution to map the demand from agricultural-dependent populations. We then construct several prioritisation indices that evaluate tanks from supply, demand, and utility for groundwater rejuvenation perspectives. Our findings highlight priority areas for tank rejuvenation concentrated in Kurunegala and Anuradhapura districts. The indices developed in this study provide a framework for targeting investments effectively, thereby optimising resource allocation for drought mitigation efforts. The approach can support enhancement of water security and resilience in vulnerable agricultural communities across Sri Lanka and in other parts of South Asia which are reliant on such infrastructure for water storage.

North Korea may be ranked among one of the poorest countries of the world in terms of its GDP growth but it still holds its relevance as a major power in the international world order, given the nuclear stockpile threat posed against the Western bloc led by the United States. North Korea’s cyber capabilities has been characterized by opportunism. Till date, there is little evidence on North Korea having a nuclear doctrine. An analysis of the statements from the leadership suggests that North Korea has a mix of grandiose and conventional ideas on the aspect of cyber operations during military conflicts. The paper attempts to examine North Korea’s cyber weapon capabilities and their potential implications for International Security through focus on three key operations – Kimsuky, Lazarus and Advanced Persistent Threat (APT) 37. These operations have targeted South Korea, parts of South Asia and the Pacific whose laggard cyber security mechanisms have borne heavy consequences. With regard to the diversification of cyber capabilities, the focus would be placed on North Korean regime’s use of cyber espionage and malware applications across the Korean peninsula and in particular Japan and the United States. The application of case studies where the Korean regime – backed hackers were behind significant cyber operations, most of them fatal to the international security and order.

Neolithic art marks a turning point in the evolution of human culture, from roving hunter-gatherer cultures to permanent agricultural settlements. This change aided in the development of new technology, social structures, and most significantly, the advancement of art and craftsmanship. Because of its practical and ceremonial applications, pottery-making emerged as a prominent craft. This essay investigates the evolution of art throughout the Neolithic era, concentrating on the techniques, styles, and cultural significance of pottery manufacture. The art of the ceramic heritage of Neolithic Kashmir represents a significant aspect of the Kashmir's early human history, showcasing the development of pottery and earthen art from the Neolithic period. This heritage is not just a testament to the artistic skills of ancient peoples but also provides insights into their daily lives, societal structures, and interactions with the environment. Neolithic sites in Kashmir have yielded a wealth of pottery pieces, characterized by their fine finishes, intricate designs, and functional forms. These artefacts indicate a high level of craftsmanship and an understanding of ceramic technologies that were advanced for their time. The pottery often features geometric patterns, animal figures, and other motifs that may have held cultural or symbolic significance. The earthenware from Neolithic Kashmir is typically made from locally sourced clay, shaped by hand or with simple tools, and then fired in kilns or open fires to achieve durability. The variety of forms—from storage jars and cooking pots to bowls and plates - suggests a diversified use in daily activities such as food preparation, storage, and consumption. These ancient ceramics also provide evidence of trade and cultural exchange. Variations in styles and techniques between different sites within the region, and similarities with pottery found in other parts of South Asia, suggest that Neolithic communities in Kashmir were not isolated but part of a broader network of interaction. The study of Neolithic Kashmir's ceramic heritage is crucial for archaeologists and art historians as it helps reconstruct the lifestyles, technological advancements, and aesthetic sensibilities of early societies in the region. Additionally, it underscores the importance of preserving such art and skill at the archaeological sites, which face threats from environmental factors, urban development, and illicit trafficking.

COVID-19 hospitalization, mortality and premature mortality by a history of immigration in Ontario, Canada: a population-based cohort study

Fossil crocodylian remains have been documented from India and other parts of South Asia since the mid-nineteenth century, but specimens attributed to several extinct and extant species of Crocodylus have largely been neglected in modern taxonomic treatments. Here, we present a detailed anatomical description of the extinct species Crocodylus palaeindicus, which we restrict to the late Miocene to early middle Pleistocene of India. Using an autapomorphy-based approach to species-level identification, we regard Crocodylus sivalensis as a junior synonym of C. palaeindicus and provide taxonomic re-identifications of all specimens previously referred to these two species. We present a new diagnosis for C. palaeindicus that facilitates its distinction from the extant mugger crocodile, C. palustris, which does not unequivocally appear in the fossil record prior to the Pleistocene. The lack of clear spatiotemporal overlap, coupled with the otherwise lengthy ghost lineage implied by their sister-taxon relationship in our phylogenetic analyses, provides tentative support that the extant species either is the descendant of C. palaeindicus or originated via budding cladogenesis. An expanded phylogenetic analysis recovers the late Miocene African C. checchiai and Pliocene South American C. falconensis as species within the Neotropical Crocodylus clade, supporting an African origin for this radiation. We also recover Kinyang, from the early–middle Miocene of Kenya, as a crocodyline, rather than an osteolaemine as originally described, and it is potentially the stratigraphically earliest known member of the Crocodylus lineage. Other notable results from our phylogenetic analyses suggest that crocodyloids might not have been present in North America prior to the late Neogene arrival of Crocodylus, with Albertosuchus knudsenii, Prodiplocynodon langi and ‘Crocodylus’ affinis all recovered outside of Crocodyloidea. Furthermore, we demonstrate that an alligatoroid placement for the recently erected latest Cretaceous–Palaeogene East Asian clade Orientalosuchina is highly labile, with relationships at the ‘base’ of Crocodylia unstable.

The production of fisheries and shrimp has been twice every 10years for the previous five decades, making it the most rapidly expanding food industry. This growth is due to intensive farming and the conversion of agriculture into aquaculture in many parts of South Asia. Furthermore, intensive aquaculture generates positive economic growth but leads to environmental degradation without proper monitoring. Unfortunately, technical innovation is less in aquaculture than agricultural and manufacturing industries. The advent of remote sensing and soft computing has expanded various opportunities for utilizing and integrating technological advances in civil and environmental disciplines. This paper presents the aquaculture scenario in the western Godavari delta region of Andhra Pradesh and proposes various novel assessment tools to monitor the aquaculture environment. An experimental investigation was carried out on the physicochemical characteristics of the inland aquaculture ponds to evaluate water quality in the aquaculture ponds. Furthermore, to assess the intensity of inland aquaculture, the current work concentrates on the potential application of remote sensing and soft computing approaches. Geospatial models of kriging and inverse distance weighing (IDW) show higher performance in estimating ammonia levels in the intensive aquaculture groundwaters with coefficient of determination (R2) values of 0.947 and 0.901, respectively. Teaching learning-based optimization (TLBO) and adaptive particle swarm optimization (APSO), two of the five soft computing techniques utilized in the study, perform better than the others. Additionally, it was found that remote sensing-based assessment tools and soft computing prediction models were both trustworthy, accurate, and easy to use. Furthermore, these methods could assist in the real-time evaluation of inland aquaculture waters by stakeholders and policymakers.

Dermatophytes are common causes of skin, hair, and nail infections in humans. The most common species causing infections in humans are Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, and Trichophyton interdigitale. Outbreaks of recalcitrant dermatophytosis have been reported in parts of South Asia, including those caused by a hypervirulent and resistant species, Trichophyton indotineae. We evaluated the antifungal susceptibility profiles of dermatophytes received by our laboratory from institutions across North America between 2021 and 2022 and performed species identification for isolates deemed to demonstrate in vitro resistance. Susceptibility testing was performed by CLSI broth microdilution methods, and species identification was performed by DNA sequence analysis. During this 2-year period, 271 dermatophyte isolates were included, the majority of which demonstrated low MIC values for terbinafine (geometric mean [GM] and modal MIC, 0.031 μg/mL and 0.008 μg/mL, respectively) and the azoles itraconazole, posaconazole, and voriconazole (0.035 to 0.049 μg/mL and ≤0.03 μg/mL). However, 18.6% of the isolates tested were resistant to terbinafine (MIC ≥ 0.5 μg/mL), including 21 T. rubrum and 21 T. indotineae isolates. These isolates were received from several different states in the United States and two provinces in Canada. In contrast, resistance to itraconazole was relatively rare. We also searched our laboratory database for earlier isolates that were resistant to terbinafine and identified 3 additional T. indotineae isolates, the earliest of which was from 2017. These results demonstrate that terbinafine resistance in dermatophytes was relatively common over this 2-year period and that T. indotineae is present in multiple areas in North America. Continued surveillance is warranted.

Uninhibited drafting and plummeting groundwater levels have entailed a slew of eco-environmental and socio-economic crises across vast swathes of South Asia, leading to social turmoil over the demand-supply gap in the irrigation sector. We adopted a mixed-method approach, combining systematic bibliometric assessment with contextual analysis, to highlight to the regional water authorities (RWAs) the core tenets of groundwater markets (GWMs), already operating in various capacities and forms in different parts of South Asia, as a potential option to address the crisis. GWMs, occurring along a farmer-water-irrigation continuum, have mixed impacts on groundwater-dependent socio-ecologies, ranging from beneficial to counter-productive. Given the dire projections of groundwater depletion in the near future and the inadequacy of the state machineries to meet surging irrigation demand, a critical policy question that we approached in this narrative was: Can GWMs be institutionalized as a regulatory tool for ‘supply-side’ management of irrigation resources? To that end, we helped RWAs grow a deeper understanding of the complexity and interdisciplinarity associated with the vast network of actors and agencies interlocked within GWMs. By the same token, we urged the RWAs to consider a collective space—potentially in the form of a groundwater users’ association (GWUA)—as a prerequisite to imagining GWMs in an institutional mould. We present a critique of current world experiences with GWUAs and reflect on the socio-environmental barriers to establishing a functional GWUA. We outline tentative means for RWAs to build credibility and increase acceptability of GUWAs at the grassroots, including capacity building, value-based standard operating procedures and harnessing solidarity and social responsibility. In conclusion, we offer RWAs a simple system of a ‘reality’ check, to evaluate the ground conditions and feasibility of contemplating GWMs in the first place.

Paratyphoid fever caused by S. Paratyphi A is endemic in parts of South Asia and Southeast Asia. The proportion of enteric fever cases caused by S. Paratyphi A has substantially increased, yet only limited data is available on the population structure and genetic diversity of this serovar. We examined the phylogenetic distribution and evolutionary trajectory of S. Paratyphi A isolates collected as part of the Indian enteric fever surveillance study "Surveillance of Enteric Fever in India (SEFI)." In the study period (2017-2020), S. Paratyphi A comprised 17.6% (441/2503) of total enteric fever cases in India, with the isolates highly susceptible to all the major antibiotics used for treatment except fluoroquinolones. Phylogenetic analysis clustered the global S. Paratyphi A collection into seven lineages (A-G), and the present study isolates were distributed in lineages A, C and F. Our analysis highlights that the genome degradation events and gene acquisitions or losses are key molecular events in the evolution of new S. Paratyphi A lineages/sub-lineages. A total of 10 hypothetically disrupted coding sequences (HDCS) or pseudogenes-forming mutations possibly associated with the emergence of lineages were identified. The pan-genome analysis identified the insertion of P2/PSP3 phage and acquisition of IncX1 plasmid during the selection in 2.3.2/2.3.3 and 1.2.2 genotypes, respectively. We have identified six characteristic missense mutations associated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) biosynthesis genes of S. Paratyphi A, however, these mutations confer only a low structural impact and possibly have minimal impact on vaccine effectiveness. Since S. Paratyphi A is human-restricted, high levels of genetic drift are not expected unless these bacteria transmit to naive hosts. However, public-health investigation and monitoring by means of genomic surveillance would be constantly needed to avoid S. Paratyphi A serovar becoming a public health threat similar to the S. Typhi of today.

The identification of the biogeophysical effects due to land-use, land-cover, and land- management changes (LULCC) is yet to be clearly understood. A range of factors, such as the inclusion of an interactive ocean model component, representation of land management, transient LULCC, and accountability for atmospheric feedback, potentially shifts how models may detect the impacts of the land surface on the climate system. Previous studies on the biogeophysical effects of LULCC in South Asia have either neglected one of those factors or are single model results. Therefore, we analyzed the outputs from 11 models, participants of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project in its Sixth Phase (CMIP6), which derived from experiments with and without LULCC and compared the two simulations with respect to changes in near-surface temperature and total precipitation means. The CMIP6 simulations, to a certain extent, accounted for the elements previously overlooked. We examined the grid cells that robustly indicated a climatic impact from LULCC. Additionally, we investigated the atmospheric feedback and the dominant fluxes with their associated land surface variables involved in the changes in temperature and precipitation. Our results indicated that the biogeophysical effects from LULCC favored surface net cooling and surface net drying over the robust areas at all seasons. The surface net cooling was strongly influenced by the decrease in available energy and the increase in latent heat and total evapotranspiration. Surface net drying was highly promoted by local hydrological processes, especially in areas outside the monsoon core. The study also revealed that non-local sources might influence precipitation in some parts of South Asia, although this was inconclusive. Our research presented similar results to previous studies but with different magnitudes, which highlighted the added value of CMIP6-GCMs simulations but also their pitfalls.