Parental Sex Preferences Research Articles

Children’s sex composition and transition to higher-order birth among Turkish migrants in Europe and their non-migrant counterparts in Turkey: does having a son matter?

ABSTRACT A growing literature examines parental sex preferences for their children among migrant communities in Western countries and investigates whether migrants’ preferences align with those of the native population. Changes in preference may indicate cultural and structural assimilation into the destination country. We adopted a dissimilation from origins conceptual perspective and compared migrants’ behavior to that of their non-migrant peers in the origin country. We used the unique 2000 Families dataset, which includes multi-generational data on both early labor migrants to Europe and non-migrants from the same regions of origin in Turkey. The study provides the first examination of parental sex preferences for their children and fertility among Turkish migrants and their descendants in Europe and their non-migrant counterparts in Turkey. The findings show ongoing son preference among first-generation migrants and their children, thus supporting the theory of cultural persistence.

Parental sex-preferences in South Africa: culture and family composition

The study investigates parental sex-preferences for children in South Africa, using answers to the 2016 DHS survey. Some 8514 women and 3618 men were asked about the ideal composition of their family. Results show major differences between women and men: women were more often indifferent (11.9% vs. 9.9%), equalitarian, i.e. preferring the same number of boys and girls (53.1% vs. 43.1%) or preferring more girls (16.7% vs. 8.4%) than men, while men were more likely to prefer more boys (37.6% vs. 18.3%). The relative preference for girls was therefore 4.1 larger for women than for men. Several socio-economic factors were investigated: urban residence, level of education, household wealth, and exposure to media, but had hardly any impact on sex-preferences. In contrast, cultural and ethnic factors were strong. White/European groups had higher preference for boys, while Black/African groups showed virtually no differential preference between boys and girls, like in nearby southern African countries. Some minor differences could be noted among ethnic groups, in particular among Zulus and Xhosas. At ethnic level, nuptiality, in particular polygyny, and household structure showed a correlation with sex-preferences. Lastly, current family composition had an effect on stated preferences, showing that on average men and women were rather satisfied with the sex-composition of their family.

Relationships Between Maternal Perinatal Mood, Sex of Infant, and Disappointment with Sex of Infant in a North American Sample.

Little is known about the relationships between sex of infant, disappointment with sex of infant, and risk for perinatal depression, particularly in societies where the nature of parental sex preference is thought to be "balanced" between male and female offspring. We sought to explore relationships between these variables in a North American population. In this exploratory study, we used data from a large Canadian prospective longitudinal study in which data were collected at up to four timepoints: during pregnancy, and at 1week, 1month and 3months postpartum. Data about sex of infant, maternal preference for, and disappointment in sex of infant were recorded at the first possible timepoint; while at each postpartum timepoint infant fussiness and EPDS scores were recorded. We performed a mixed-effects linear regression to evaluate relationships between these variables. In our sample of N = 207 women, EPDS scores were higher for mothers of male versus female infants, and independently associated with infant fussiness. There was no interaction between sex of infant and maternal disappointment, or between maternal disappointment and EPDS scores. Mothers of male infants may have slightly more depressive symptoms than mothers of female infants regardless of maternal preference for, or disappointment in sex of infant; sex-specific biological risk factors for PPD should be explored.

Children’s Sex and Parental Sex Preference

Children’s Sex and Parental Sex Preference

How Does Children’s Sex Affect Parental Sex Preference: Evidence from India

How Does Children’s Sex Affect Parental Sex Preference: Evidence from India

Adoption: A Strategy to Fulfill Sex Preferences of U.S. Parents.

This article examines adoption as a strategy used by parents to fulfill their preference for a specific sex composition among their children in the United States. Evidence from the United States suggests that parents with children of the same sex are more likely to continue childbearing, as parents generally desire at least one girl and one boy. What is unknown, however, is whether parents use adoption to fulfill this same preference. Using data from the 2016 American Community Survey (n=1,107,800 children), the authors test the relationships among the sex composition of preceding siblings, child sex, and adoption status. Children who had same-sex preceding siblings were more likely to be adopted, as opposed to biologically related to their parents, than children who had mixed-sex preceding siblings. Further, adopted children were more likely to be of the missing sex (i.e., adopted girls were more likely than were adopted boys to have only preceding brothers). These findings suggest a need to consider parental sex preferences and child sex in studies on adoption decisions. Further, adoption provides one mechanism parents can use to achieve a balanced sex composition among their children.

Spending patterns of Chinese parents on children's backpacks support the Trivers-Willard hypothesis

Abstract Using the 2015 student backpack transaction from the largest E-commerce business in China, this study takes a novel big data approach to test the patterns of parental sex preference by comparing the difference in cost between blue and pink backpacks at different quantiles of the backpack cost distribution. Unconditional quantile regression results show that, depending on the quantile of choice, the blue-pink difference in backpack cost can be positive, negative, or zero. This indicates the presence of son preference, daughter preference, and gender indifference in the same population. Treating backpack cost as a proxy measure of parental economic status, such results indicate that parents of high economic status invest more heavily in sons whereas parents of low economic status invest more heavily in daughters, as predicted by the Trivers-Willard hypothesis. The discovery of a third group, between the high- and low-status parents, who invest equally in sons and daughters further strengthens the argument.

Immigrant mothers’ preferences for children’s sexes: A register-based study of fertility behaviour in Norway

Parental sex preferences have been documented in many native populations, but much less evidence is available on immigrants’ preferences for the sexes of their children. Using high-quality longitudinal register data from Norway, a country with a recent immigration history, we estimate hazards regression models of third birth risks by the sex composition of the first two children. A central question in the extant literature is whether the sex preferences of immigrant mothers match those observed in their country of origin, or if cultural adaption to local conditions is more important. Our analyses indicate that the sex preferences of immigrants generally match those previously documented for their native population, especially in the case of son preferences. The pattern of sex preferences is unmodified by the mother’s exposure to the host society. In sum, our evidence generally supports theories emphasizing cultural persistence in preferences, rather than theories of adaption or immigrant selectivity.

Immigrant Parents' Preferences for Children's Sex: A Register-Based Study of Fertility Behavior in Ten National-Origin Groups

Parental sex preferences for children have been documented in many native populations, but much less evidence is available on immigrants’ preferences for the sex of their children. Using high quality longitudinal register data from Norway, a country with a recent immigration history, we estimate hazard regression models of third birth rates by the sex composition of previous children born. Results show that there is an overall preference for at least one child of each sex also among immigrants, and that certain regions have strong preferences for boys. Sensitivity tests indicate that the age at arrival does not affect the conclusions. In sum, the findings support theories emphasizing cultural persistence, rather than theories of rapid integration and adaption of immigrants.

PARENTAL GENDER PREFERENCES AND REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR: A REVIEW OF THE RECENT LITERATURE

This paper reviews various theoretical approaches towards an explanation of parental gender preferences and empirical findings from developing as well as from industrialized countries, focusing on the role of gender preferences in reproductive decisions. Although various attempts have been made to shed light on the mechanisms underlying the observed patterns of sex preferences for children, a fully satisfying theoretical explanation is still not at hand. Empirically, a distinct and stable preference for at least one child of each sex can be observed as a common pattern of parental sex preferences across many different social, economic and cultural contexts. Further - and ideally multidisciplinary - research that helps to improve our understanding of this phenomenon is highly desirable.

Gendering family composition: Sex preferences for children and childbearing behavior in the Nordic countries

It has been argued that a society's gender system may influence parents' sex preferences for children. If this is true, one should expect to find no evidence of such preferences in countries with a high level of gender equality. In this article, we exploit data from population registers from Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden to examine continuities and changes in parental sex preferences in the Nordic countries during the past three to four decades. First, we do not observe an effect of the sex of the first born child on second-birth risks. Second, we detect a distinct preference for at least one child of each sex among parents of two children. For third births, Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish parents seem to develop a preference for having a daughter, while Finns exhibit a significant preference for having a son. These findings show that modernization and more equal opportunities for women and men do not necessarily lead to parental gender indifference. On the contrary, they may even result in new sex preferences.

What Factors Are Associated with Parents’ Desire To Know the Sex of Their Unborn Child?

Parents feel strongly about whether or not to learn the sex of their fetus. We sought to determine which factors are significantly associated with parents' desire to know or not to know the fetal sex during a prenatal ultrasound. All women undergoing prenatal ultrasound examinations, except for those with suspected failed pregnancies, were invited to answer a questionnaire at an outpatient referral center for diagnostic ultrasound in obstetrics and gynecology in Boston, Massachusetts. The survey asked about demographic factors, current pregnancy, and past pregnancies, and an open-ended question about whether and why the parents wished to learn, or did not learn, the sex of their fetus. Factors significantly associated with parents' desire to learn the fetal sex prenatally were determined and analyzed. A total of 1,340 questionnaires were completed. Overall, 761/1,302 (58%) of mothers and 747/1,295 (58%) of fathers learned or planned to learn the fetal sex before delivery. Factors most associated with wanting to learn the fetal sex were conceiving accidentally, finding out the sex in a previous pregnancy, not planning to breastfeed, influence of sex on future childbearing plans, planning a move or renovation dependent on sex, and specific parental sex preference. Demographic factors most associated with wanting to learn the fetal sex were father without full-time job, lower household income, unwed mother, maternal age less than 22 or greater than 40 years, no college degree, race other than white, and religion other than Catholic. Specific demographic and socioeconomic characteristics predicted whether or not parents chose to know the sex of their unborn child. Families in which the pregnancy was unplanned, those in which fetal sex would influence living arrangements or future childbearing plans, and those of lower socioeconomic status wished to know the sex more frequently. Further study is needed to understand parents' motivations underlying the desire to know or not know fetal sex before delivery.

Cent ans après, entretiens avec J.-L. Donnet, A. Green, J. Laplanche, J.-C. Lavie, J. MacDougall, M. de M'Uzan, J.-B. Pontalis, J.-P. Yalabrega, D. Widlöcher: Froté P. Paris: Gallimard, coll. « Connaissance de l'inconscient ; 1998. 565 p

Using the 2015 student backpack transaction data from the largest E-commerce business in China, this study takes a novel “big data” approach to test the patterns of parental sex preference by comparing the difference in cost between blue and pink backpacks at different quantiles of the backpack cost distribution. Unconditional quantile regression results show that, depending on the quantile of choice, the blue-pink difference in backpack cost can be positive, negative, or zero. This indicates the presence of son preference, daughter preference, and gender indifference in the same population. Treating backpack cost as a proxy measure of parental economic status, such results indicate that parents of high economic status invest more heavily in sons whereas parents of low economic status invest more heavily in daughters, as predicted by the Trivers-Willard hypothesis. The discovery of a third group, between the high- and low-status parents, who invest equally in sons and daughters further strengthens the argument.

Contraceptive Use in Matlab, Bangladesh: The Role of Gender Preference

Research in several Asian societies has suggested that sons are generally preferred over daughters. The implications of gender preferences for actual fertility behavior have not been adequately investigated, however. This analysis examines the effect of the sex composition of surviving children on the acceptance and discontinuation of contraception in a sample of 3,145 women in Matlab, Bangladesh, who were observed for 60 months. Hazards regression analyses are employed in the analysis. Strong and highly significant effects of gender preference on contraceptive use are observed. The preference is not monotonically son-biased but is moderated toward a balanced composition, because parents desire to have several sons and at least one daughter. These findings suggest that gender preferences, particularly a preference for sons, represent a significant barrier to fertility regulation in rural Bangladesh.

A Stochastic Dynamic Analysis of Parental Sex Preferences and Fertility

The author has developed a stochastic dynamic model of fertility to examine assumptions which form the basis of often used econometric tests for parental sex preferences. These assumptions included the use of fertility data to test for sex preferences and to test for son preference based on the effect of the number of males on fertility. The Heckman and Willis stochastic model of reproduction was used to formulate this model. This new model allowed some tractable and testable predictions. It was able to predict income and wage effects without sex preferences. Further it can accurately describe life cycle dynamic fertility behavior. The model demonstrated the existence of a quantity quality interaction which influence parents decisions on fertility. For example higher quality measured by the effective number of children substituted for a higher quantity (number of children). The model proved that sex preferences can indeed be tested but it could not differentiate empirically between son preference and daughter preference from fertility data. Perhaps data on intrafamily allocation of resources as used by Rosenzweig and Schultz; Behrman Pollak and Taubman; and Behrman would better be able to test for son versus daughter preference since allocation is based on existing children. The results of this newly formulated stochastic dynamic model of fertility challenge the validity of traditional econometric tests for son preference.

Intention versus behaviour in parental sex preferences among the Mukogodo of Kenya

The relationship between parents' stated sex preferences for children and actual parental behaviour towards sons and daughters is examined among the Mukogodo, a group of traditional pastoralists in rural Kenya. Although their cultural values are male-centered and they tend to express a preference for sons, Mukogodo parents actually appear to be more solicitous of daughters, and the Mukogodo have a strongly female-biased childhood sex ratio. Studies of stated sex preferences should therefore be coupled with attempts to assess actual parental investment in sons and daughters.

From Hunters to Herders: Subsistence Change as a Reproductive Strategy among the Mukogodo

From Hunters to Herders: Subsistence Change as a Reproductive Strategy among the Mukogodo

Perception of Parental Sex Preference by Nigerian Children

Perception of Parental Sex Preference by Nigerian Children

Sex predetermination and the sex ratio at birth.

The possible effects of human sex predetermination on the sex ratio at birth are discussed. Methods exist or are being developed to allow separation of X and Y sperm. If acceptable and reliable methods became available to parents for choosing the sex of their children data indicates that they would be used at least by some people. The use of sex predetermination might result in smaller family size by allowing people to achieve ideal family sex composition but it might also cause an imbalance in sex ratio in the population. The severity and direction of this sex imbalance would depend upon the reliability of the methods for sex predetermination and upon parental preferences. 11 models are presented predicting the effects on the sex ratio in the population of various parental sex preferences given a particular reliability of the method used for sex predetermination.

Parent Evaluation and Social Ideology

Upon the assumption that an individual's social attitudes are determined in part by his social ideology, a series of exploratory studies was designed to throw light on the role of parent participation in ideology development. To date three studies have been completed (Crutchfield, 1958; Cooper & Blair, 1959). The first two have been reported elsewhere, and the third will be reported in detail short1y.l Thus far the approach has been phenomenological in that Ss were asked to evaluate their parents, and to estimate the degree of similarity between their own and their parents' social ideologies. High school and college student samples were used. The two principal instruments were: first, a Parent Evaluation Scale, designed to measure good and bad parent behavior and personality characteristics; second, the wellknown E-F Scale (6ough, 1951), used as a measure of social ideology. The essential hypothesis, that Ss who accord relatively high evaluations to their parents think of themselves as relatively close to their parents ideologically, was strongly supported by the results of each study. Among others, three ancillary findings appear to have long range significance for this research program. First, high school Ss who accorded their parents high evaluations were relatively high in academic achievement. Second, high school Ss who scored high on the E-F Scale tended to accord their parents low evaluations. Third, with one exception, both high school and college Ss indicated no parental sex preference. That exception was: intellectually superior high school males expressed a significant father preference. One important methodological change is planned for the next study; parents wiU be interrogated directly. In addition, certain technical improvements in the measuring instruments are planned.