Paranormal Research Articles

PARANORMAL BELIEFS AS PREDICTORS OF MALADAPTIVE EMOTIONAL SCHEMAS IN YOUNG ADULTS WITH FUNCTIONAL NEUROLOGICAL SYMPTOM DISORDER

There is severe threat of permanent impairment in young adults due to the effect of life stressors which bring cognitive and emotional downfall leading to functional neurological symptom disorder. The aim of this research was to measure paranormal beliefs along maladaptive emotional schemas in patients with functional neurological symptom disorder through structural equation modelling IBM SPSS (AMOS 26) analysis. Psychodynamic functions hypothesis theory was applied to describe the role of paranormal beliefs which were carried by the young patients suffering from this mysterious ailment. A purposive sample of 134 participants between 14 years to 24 years has been chosen to administer the questionnaires of RPBS (Tobacky, 2004) and LESS-II (Leahy, 2002) to assess paranormal beliefs and maladaptive emotional schemas respectively. The final results showed that the two-factor model with 10 items of LESS-II was the better fit with a model of seven factors with 26 items of RPBS. In the model, the index demonstrated good fit (X2=645.623, P<0.05, GFI=0.798, CFI=0.949, NFI=0.846, TLI=0.972, RMSEA=0.038, CMIN/df=1.407). It also showed great convergent validity and share approximately 30% of the variance. It is concluded that paranormal beliefs were positively significantly related to maladaptive emotional schemas and, only the belief of psi highly positively significantly predicted the maladaptive emotional schemas in functional neurological symptoms patients. The outcomes provide strong support for the clinical purpose to focus on the paranormal and schemas related to the patient’s perception during cognitive therapeutic approaches. Keywords: Paranormal Beliefs, Emotional Schemas, Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder, AMOS.

GENDER DIFFERENCES: PARANORMAL BELIEFS AND MALADAPTIVE EMOTIONAL SCHEMAS

This study aimed to assess and compare the level of paranormal beliefs and maladaptive emotional schemas between both genders, males and females suffering from Functional Neurological Symptom disorder (FNSD). One hundred thirty-four patients (67 males & 67 females) between 14 years to 24 years having functional neurological symptoms disorder were approached through a purposive sampling strategy from the psychiatric wards of the government and private hospitals in Lahore. The questionnaires of RPBS (Tobacky, 2004) and LESS-II (Leahy, 2002) were applied to assess paranormal beliefs and maladaptive emotional schemas, respectively. The results of the Independent sample t-test show that female patients experience a significantly different paranormal witchcraft beliefs; t (132) = 18.15, p=.000, two-tailed, and superstitions beliefs; t (132) = 33.704, p=.000, two-tailed. The effect of Cohen (d =1.705) is higher and more in females than males. In addition, findings also show the statistically significant gender difference on emotional schemas of invalidation; t (132) = 2.25, p=.026, two-tailed, on a simplistic view of emotions; t (132) = 33.704, p=.000, two-tailed, on low expression; t (132) = 5.716, p=.000, two-tailed and on blame; t (132) = -2.372, p=.019, two-tailed. The effect size of Cohen (d =0.629) is medium, however, more in females than males. This study concluded that female FNSD patients need to be more focused on modifying their paranormal witchcraft and superstitious beliefs and maladaptive emotional schemas of invalidation, simplistic view of emotions, and blaming to control them than males. Therefore, males should be adjusted for the emotion of low expression, which could be done through emotional focus therapy.

Reflections of Enculturation and Acculturation in Chabacano Folklores of Zamboanga City

This qualitative, descriptive, and analytical research study aimed to describe the perception of Zamboangueño-Chabacano through a sociological lens. The examination of the data centers on Chabacano folklore gathered from several trustworthy sources. The enculturation and acculturation types of culture were used to categorize these non-material cultures. It is essential to comprehend Zamboangueo-Chabacano culture to preserve cultural traditions and develop programs that may be used in the classroom to promote greater literacy. Seventeen of the thirty-five described civilizations are enculturated, while 18 are acculturated. The Chabacano folklores that best capture the Zamboangueo-Chabacano culture emphasize respect for other people's languages, races, and cities, a firm belief in God, perseverance, diligence, courage, resourcefulness, and an acceptance of paranormal phenomena (kababalaghan). The research's findings corroborate the idea that the influence of Spanish culture and great devotion to Catholicism played an essential role in the lives of the Zamboangueño-Chabacano by showing that the majority of the culture depicted in Chabacano folklore is acculturation.

Linking paranormal and conspiracy beliefs to illusory pattern perception through signal detection theory

Previous research indicates that irrational beliefs (Paranormal beliefs & conspiracy theory endorsement) are associated with the perception of patterns in noise, but the previous findings do not conclusively describe this relationship. This study aims to disentangle the underlying parameters of this association by applying a signal detection theory approach, thus allowing to distinguish illusory pattern perception (false alarms) from perceptual sensitivity and response tendencies—while also taking base rate information into account. Results from a large sample (N = 723) indicate that paranormal beliefs relate to a more liberal response bias and a lower perceptual sensitivity, and that this relationship is driven by illusory pattern perception. Such a clear pattern could not be observed for conspiracy beliefs, for which the increase in false alarm rates was moderated by the base rate. The associations between irrational beliefs and illusory pattern perception were however less substantial compared to other sources of variance. Implications are discussed.

Psi-entific Approach to Post-Mortem Survival: Employing the Multiple Sources of Psi (MSoP) and Discarnate Psi Hypotheses in the Calculation of a Drake-S Equation

The continued investigations of the paranormal facilitated the development of novel theories and methodologies. Psi functioning of the living and the deceased in survival phenomena suggested the living agent psi (LAP) and discarnate psi hypotheses, but neither has demonstrated sufficient explanatory power to claim superiority in explaining survival data. Mediumship studies cannot determine whether paranormal information is sourced by means of discarnate psi or LAP, presenting the source-of-psi problem. Anomalous information can be obtained from joint sources (LAP, survival, or some other source), which supports the multiple sources of psi (MSoP) hypothesis. The maximized explanatory potential of the MSoP hypothesis makes the inclusion of the LAP and discarnate psi factors in the calculation of a Drake-S equation for post-mortem survival required and appropriate. This paper concludes that 1) the aggregate effect of skeptical explanations for survival was calculated at 65.6%, leaving 35.4% to paranormal explanations, which contradicts skeptical claims and is inconsistent with the existing laws of conventional science; 2) 16% of paranormal experiences reported among the general population appeared genuine; and 3) the calculated purified probability for all paranormal phenomena equaling 40% can be attributed to paranormal causes. This suggests reasonable plausibility of the survival hypothesis. To refine the existing factors and find new empirical factors related to known confounds and anomalous effects, future research should include more robust procedures and methods of data selection, gathering, and analysis.

Psychotic-like experiences in non-clinical subgroups with and without specific beliefs

BackgroundAssuming a transdiagnostic and extended psychosis phenotype, psychotic-like experiences (PLEs) and psychotic symptoms are on a phenomenological and temporal continuum between clinical and non-clinical populations. Recent research points towards differences in PLE proneness in different subgroups and clinical impact of different PLE subtypes. This study examines the prevalence of PLEs in three groups of individuals with and without specific sets of beliefs aiming to elucidate the question whether proneness to PLEs varies according to traditional versus less traditional supernatural beliefs.MethodsThe anonymized 16-item version of the Prodromal Questionnaire (PQ-16) was used to assess PLEs in three groups including individuals with religious beliefs (RB), belief in esoterism and paranormal phenomena (EB), and those embedded in scientific evidence approach and scepticism towards para-scientific theories (non-believers, NB). Male and female participants between 18 and 90 years were eligible for participation.ResultsThe sample comprised 159 individuals including 41 RB individuals, 43 EB individuals, and 75 NB individuals. The mean PQ-16 score of the EB individuals (6.86 ± 4.13) was significantly higher compared to NB individuals (3.43 ± 2.99) and to RB individuals (3.38 ± 3.23) with almost twice the score (both p-values < 0.001). There was no significant difference between the PQ-16 scores of the NB group and the RB group (p = 0.935). No significant impact of age (p = 0.330) and gender (p = 0.061) was found on the PQ16-Score.Group affiliation to esoterism was associated with a higher PQ-16 score compared to group affiliation to religious beliefs (p < 0.001) and group affiliation to scepticism (p = 0.011), while the latter two did not differ significantly (p = 0.735). No significant difference was found between the three groups in the degree of distress related to the affirmatively answered PQ-16 items (p = 0.74).ConclusionUnder the assumption of a transdiagnostic psychosis phenotype, our findings provide more insight which subgroups within non-clinical samples have a higher likelihood of reporting PLEs.

Assessing the Relationships Between Paranormal Beliefs, Higher-Order Cognitive Processes, Delusions, and Hallucinations in A Non-Clinical Population

Previous studies suggest that paranormal beliefs, cognitive processes, and psychotic-like experiences are correlated. To further explore this connection, research was conducted to examine whether paranormal beliefs were correlated with, or predicted by executive functioning, metacognition, delusions, and hallucinations. A convenience sample of 180 people completed five measures- evaluating paranormal beliefs, executive functioning deficits, metacognition awareness, delusions, and hallucinations. Prior to performing correlation and multiple regression analyses, the reliability of each measure was assessed. Findings revealed the significant positive correlations of paranormal beliefs with deficits in executive functioning, delusions, and hallucinations, whilst no significant correlation was found with metacognition. Regression analysis showed that delusions and hallucinations were significant predictors of paranormal beliefs. Concerning the relevant literature, these outcomes are debated.

Masculinity, Femininity, and Reported Paranormal Beliefs

AbstractPrevious research has found that women are more likely than men to report belief in nonmaterial paranormal phenomena (e.g., psychics). There are inconsistent findings about whether men are more likely than women to report belief in material paranormal phenomena (e.g., bigfoot/sasquatch), and no prior survey research has examined gender expression (as masculine or feminine) as it relates to paranormal beliefs. This paper asks: How do gender identity and gender expression relate to reported paranormal beliefs? It answers this question using a large sample (n = 2504) of Canadians. Femininity helps explain differences between cisgender women and men on reported beliefs about foreseeing the future and telekinesis, but less so about reported belief in ghosts. Intriguingly, reported gender atypicality is associated with reported belief in all paranormal phenomena among cisgender women and among cisgender men. The results highlight the importance of measuring gender expression for beliefs that science cannot verify.

The Role of Cognitive Control in Paranormal Beliefs: A Study Based on Performance in Go/No-go Task

Introduction: Cognitive control plays a role in human behavior and mental processes and affects paranormal beliefs. This study aims to investigate the role of cognitive control in paranormal beliefs using the go/no-go task. Methods: A total of 92 people were selected based on low, middle, and high scores in the revised paranormal belief scale (R-PBS) and assigned to 3 groups. The groups included 30 severe paranormal believers (13 females with a mean age of 25.3 years), 31 mild paranormal believers (14 females with a mean age of 26.4 years), and 31 skeptics (16 females with a mean age of 25.8 years). All participants were tested on the go/no-go task. A multivariate analysis of variance was conducted with the given groups (severe paranormal believers, mild paranormal believers, and skeptics) as the independent variable and the go/no-go subscales scores as dependent variables. Results: The findings showed a significant difference between the mean scores in errors of go (F(2, 89)=7.20, P=0.01), errors of no-go (F(2, 89)=11.81, P=0.01), and reaction time (F(2, 89)=21.46, P=0.01) between the groups. Conclusion: The severe and mild paranormal believers had lower accuracy and slower reaction times than the skeptics group. Therefore, severe paranormal believers and mild paranormal believers had a weakness in all go/no-go subscale scores. This finding suggests that paranormal beliefs may be related to poor cognitive control.

Conspiracy theories: why they are believed and how they can be challenged

ABSTRACT The current study aimed: (i) to identify personal characteristics associated with endorsing conspiracy theories; and (ii) to investigate methods for dispelling conspiracy beliefs. Participants were shown a single conspiracy theory and they also completed questionnaires about their reasoning skills, types of information processing (System 1 vs. System 2), endorsement of paranormal beliefs, locus of control and pattern perception. To challenge the endorsement of the conspiracy, participants read either: (i) neutral information; (ii) a critical analysis of the vignette; (iii) a critical analysis of the vignette with discussion of realistic consequences; or (iv) a critical analysis of the vignette with “feeling of control” priming. Only addressing the consequences of the conspiracy theory decreased its endorsement. Furthermore, only type of information processing and belief in paranormal phenomena, were associated with endorsement of the conspiracy. These findings are discussed in relation to previous studies and theories of conspiratorial ideation.

Rating the Persuasiveness of Empirical Evidence for the Survival of Consciousness After Bodily Death

Objective. Throughout history and across all cultures, many people have believed in some form of afterlife. Recent surveys show that most people worldwide believe they will survive after bodily death. Those who do not believe would require substantial empirical evidence to influence their skepticism. This study’s objective was to evaluate what types of evidence might persuade academic professionals that some aspect of consciousness survives after bodily death. Method. We surveyed academic professionals and collected demographic and professional background data, personal confidence in survival, and paranormal belief ratings. Respondents also rated the persuasiveness of 10 relevant experiments and the likelihood of their success. These data were analyzed over all participants and partitioned by confidence in survival. Results. Professional academics (N = 442) completed the survey. Gender was a significant predictor of confidence in survival, paranormal belief, and many persuasiveness ratings, with females having higher scores than males. Older age was a positive predictor for persuasiveness ratings of a proposed experiment involving after-death communication. Confidence in survival and paranormal beliefs were highly correlated. The highest persuasiveness ratings were for a controlled, prospective experiment that resulted in veridical out-of-body perceptions during a near-death experience, a mediumship experiment, and a reincarnation experiment. The least persuasive proposed experiment was survival in the form of computer-based artificial intelligence. Conclusion. Academics hold a wide range of beliefs and confidence in survival. Successful experiments designed to test for survival may influence skeptics’ prior beliefs.

Cultivating paranormal beliefs: how television viewing, social media use, and podcast listening predict belief in UFOs

ABSTRACT This study builds on cultivation theory to consider how use of different media – including television, social media, and podcasts – may predict belief in unidentified flying objects (UFOs) and extraterrestrials. Extending previous research on media use and belief in paranormal phenomena, the study tests whether consumption of specific television genres, television news outlets, social media platforms, and podcast programs is linked to greater belief in UFOs. An analysis of national survey data (N = 1,035) collected two months after the widely publicized release of a US government report on ‘unidentified aerial phenomena’ shows that paranormal documentary and reality television viewing, Fox News viewing, YouTube use, and Joe Rogan Experience listening were positively associated with belief in UFOs. By illuminating how specific forms of media use predict public beliefs about one type of purported paranormal phenomena, the findings suggest future directions in investigating beliefs about other topics on the fringes of conventional inquiry.

The prevalence of sleep paralysis in medical students in Buenos Aires, Argentina.

The objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence of sleep paralysis (SP) in medical students from the University of Buenos Aires (UBA). An ad hoc questionnaire based on the diagnosis of SP and a demographic survey was electronically presented to students of Internal Medicine at the School of Medicine of the UBA. The respondents answered both questionnaires using Google Forms®. The prevalence of SP was 40.7% (95% CI 33.5-47.8). A higher percentage of the respondents (76%) reported experiencing SP-related anxiety. An association between self-perceived quality of sleep and the incidence of SP was found (χ2: 12.712, P = 0.002). The highest frequency was hypnopompic SP (55.55%), and the highest percentage (55.4%) suffered from SP less than once every 6 months. Most respondents (59.5%) reported having started with SP symptoms after 18 years of age, and the highest percentage (66.2%) had exacerbated their symptoms at college. The frequency of the Incubus phenomenon was 14.5% (95% CI 6.2-23). Most respondents (70.8%) denied the association of SP with religious or paranormal beliefs. SP is highly prevalent in medical students and is associated with poor sleep habits and perceived poor sleep quality. Clinicians should be aware of this parasomnia to avoid a misdiagnosis of psychosis and inform sufferers of the nature of SP.

Paranormal believers show reduced resting EEG beta band oscillations and inhibitory control than skeptics

Paranormal believers’ thinking is frequently biased by intuitive beliefs. Lack of inhibition of these tempting beliefs is considered a key element in paranormal believers’ thinking. However, the brain activity related to inhibitory control in paranormal believers is poorly understood. We examined EEG activities at resting state in alpha, beta, and gamma bands with inhibitory control in paranormal believers and skeptics. The present study shows that paranormal belief is related to the reduced power of the alpha, beta, and gamma frequency bands, and reduced inhibitory control. This study may contribute to understanding the differences between believers and skeptics in brain activity related to inhibitory control in paranormal believers.

A Four Element-Themed Self-Selecting Mobile Application for ESP Testing

A new computerized test for ‘extrasensory perception’ (ESP) is designed for use in everyday environments and draws on principles in occultism to promote better results. Results suggest that induction techniques and focus contribute to ESP trial success, but are in need of larger sample replication.&#x0D; Abstract&#x0D; The current study engaged in a pilot data analysis for the purpose of examining a newly developed E (Element)-PSI application which was completed in varying real life environments while reporting information about their location, mood, and focus on the ESP task. In addition, participants completed an ESP induction task, and trait measures of Transliminality, Paranormal Belief, and paranormal experience as measured by the Survey of Strange Events. A total of 44 participants from the United States completed the study as part of an initial registration process for an ongoing experiment. Results indicate small, but non-significant effects due to sample size in terms of the induction process and focus on the ESP task towards positive increases in ESP hit rates. Implications from this research in terms of cultural, trait, and contextual variables contributing to ESP success rates are discussed in terms of using these findings towards formal large sample replication.

Social factors and UFO reports: was the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic associated with an increase in UFO reporting?

The ongoing SARS-Cov-2 pandemic had many drastic effects upon society beyond the illness and death it caused. Pandemic mitigation measures disrupted and altered behaviors related to social mobility, significantly increasing the time spent at home compared to the pre-pandemic period. Further, it was well documented that social anxiety and stress increased at a population level. Early in the pandemic there was speculation in the popular media that reporting of paranormal phenomena (e.g., UFOs, ghosts, etc.) increased due to factors associated with the pandemic. Past research on UFO/UAP reporting has theorized that increases are triggered by social factors, and so the pandemic provided a natural experiment to test these claims. To measure UFO reports we utilized two public databases of UFO reports for sightings in the United States, provided by the National UFO Reporting Center and the Mutual UFO Network. To estimate the impact of the pandemic we utilized two measures, one for social mobility and one for pandemic/disease severity. Google Community Mobility Reports provided a metric of social mobility for people who use Google Maps on their cellular telephone (i.e., amount of time spent at work compared to home), which we aggregated to a state level to estimate time spent at home. Second, we used new weekly SARS-CoV-2 cases and deaths, both absolute counts and per capita, which can be considered to be an indirect measure of anxiety and stress. We find that UFO reports did increase in 2020 compared to 2019 (p&lt;0.001 for both databases); however, the level of UFO reporting had little to no association with the various pandemic-related measures, offering no support for hypothesized social factors that influence reporting. A complicating factor in UFO reporting is the start in 2019 of Starlink satellite launches. These launches include up to 60 small satellites at once, and so are very distinctive and often easily visible. As a result, many people report these as UFOs. We coded and removed these reports from the sighting databases, and the filtered data similarly have no association with the pandemic-related factors. Further, with Starlink reports removed, there was no increase in sightings in 2020 compared to 2019. Our results contribute to an understanding of large-scale factors that impact the reporting of paranormal events, especially timely given the renewed public and government focus on the UFO phenomenon today.

Sensed Presence, Attenuated Psychosis, and Transliminality: At the Threshold of Consciousness

Introduction: The experience of “sensed presence” or “felt presence” in the absence of “other” has been described as a complex multimodal experience to which meaning is given. Sensed presence (SenP) is a transdiagnostic experience that exists along a continuum that can appear during isolation, spirit quests, exposure to extreme elements, bereavement, anxiety, and psychosis. Given the prevalence and vast heterogeneity of SenP, in addition to a surprising lack of targeted research into this phenomenon, this research examined the interrelationship of SenP, attenuated psychosis symptoms (APS), and transliminality. Transliminality is composed of absorption, fantasy proneness, paranormal belief, mystical experiences, increased creativity, and hyperaesthesia. Methods: A completely anonymous online survey of unusual experiences and mental health was distributed via social media (i.e., Twitter, Facebook, Reddit, and mass emailing lists) to recruit participants. Demographic data were analyzed using χ² tests and one-way ANOVAs. A two-step cluster analysis was conducted to identify distinct sub-categories of transliminality followed by ANOVAs with bootstrapping at 1,000 iterations to compare SenP, increased APS, and transliminality. Pearson’s bivariate correlations were conducted to determine the association between SenP, APS, and transliminality. Results: Together with descriptive findings, we show distinct characteristics between clusters. T1 cluster consisted of individuals with few SenP experiences, low APS, and low transliminality. T2 consisted of individuals with a moderate prevalence of SenP, low APS, moderate transliminality, and increased overall feeling of closeness to G-d. There was no significant difference in APS between T1 and T2 or in the level of distress associated with APS. T3 individuals showed a significantly higher prevalence of SenP in all domains (frequency, distress, vividness, and total score), higher APS, and higher transliminality, compared to T1 and T2. The T3 cluster met criteria for high risk to develop psychosis. Conclusion: Thus, our findings demonstrate a strong association and entanglement of these experiences which suggests that the interrelatedness of transliminality/absorption and APS may serve as a potentially provocative underlying structure in the phenomenology of SenP.

Paranormal Interest and Contemporariness of Magical Realism in Macbeth.

Supernatural presence is something that has been widely acknowledged in Shakespeare’s Macbeth. There issupposedly an abundance of paranormal activity and eeriness in this play. In fact, it is not an over statement to say that paranormal events drive the action in this play. However, with increasing discoveries and broader horizons made available by scientific advancement in 21st century, the supernatural still stands relevant? If so, what has rendered it its contemporariness?&#x0D; A study conducted by Shane Rogers and his team from Clarkson University in the United States observed similarities between paranormal experiences and the hallucinogenic effects of fungal spores (Dagnall Neil, The conversation). This might explain why both Macbeth and Banquo sighted the witches, having been exposed to the same weather conditions which were conducive to the growth of fungi, i.e, “thunder, lightning and rain”. And all the remaining sightings were the fragments of Macbeth’s disturbed mind. However, if the dramatist had intended to eliminate the paranormal interest, he had not designed three scenes, solely devoted to the agents of supernatural or evil, which were the witches.

Longitudinal assessment of the temporal stability and predictive validity of the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale.

The Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS) is the prevailing measure of supernatural credence. However, there exists only limited evidence to support the temporal stability and predictive validity of the instrument over time. Acknowledging this, the present study assessed the test-retest reliability of the RPBS using a large, heterogeneous sample across multiple trials. In addition, predictive validity was tested using a longitudinal statistical model, which focused on allied health outcomes (Perceived Stress and Somatic Complaints). A sample of 1,665 (M age = 54.40, 853 females, 804 males, five non-binary and three not disclosing of gender) completed study measures at three time points separated by 2 month intervals. Prior to assessing temporal stability, assessment of structural validity and longitudinal invariance occurred. Test-retest reliability of the RPBS was in the moderate to high range across time intervals, and good internal consistency was observed. Furthermore, satisfactory stability coefficients existed for RPBS subfactors. Data-model fit for the predictive model was acceptable. Belief in the paranormal explained low variance over time in Perceived Stress and Somatic Complaints (between 2.4 and 4.2%). Findings supported the stability and reliability of the RPBS. In addition, they aligned with the notion that paranormal belief in the absence of high scores on cognitive-perceptual factors (e.g. transliminality and schizotypy), has a benign influence on perceived health.

The associations between paranormal beliefs and sleep variables.

Previous studies have found significant associations between paranormal beliefs and sleep variables. However, these have been conducted on a small scale and are limited in the number of sleep variables investigated. This study aims to fill a gap in the literature by investigating paranormal beliefs in relation to a wide range of sleep variables in a large sample. Participants (N=8853) completed a survey initiated by the BBC Focus Magazine. They reported on their demographics, sleep disturbances and paranormal beliefs. Poorer subjective sleep quality (lower sleep efficiency, longer sleep latency, shorter sleep duration and increased insomnia symptoms) was associated with greater endorsement of belief in: (1) the soul living on after death; (2) the existence of ghosts; (3) demons; (4) an ability for some people to communicate with the dead; (5) near-death experiences are evidence for life after death; and (6) aliens have visited earth. In addition, episodes of exploding head syndrome and isolated sleep paralysis were associated with the belief that aliens have visited earth. Isolated sleep paralysis was also associated with the belief that near-death experiences are evidence for life after death. Findings obtained here indicate that there are associations between beliefs in the paranormal and various sleep variables. This information could potentially better equip us to support sleep via psychoeducation. Mechanisms underlying these associations are likely complex, and need to be further explored to fully understand why people sometimes report "things that go bump in the night".