During pandemics, infectious diseases spread at a high rate assuming great challenges to both the health system, policymakers, and economies of nations across the globe. The use of mathematical modelling has become one of the most important tools in terms of how the pandemic dynamics, disease spreading forecasting, and evidence-based policy are understood. This paper will be concerned with the mathematical modeling of pandemic transmission based on compartmental models to examine patterns of transmission, evaluate how the intervention will work, and produce predictive information. In the study, the deterministic model is used whereby the Susceptible-Infected-Recovered (SIR) and its variations are used to estimate the relevant parameters in epidemiological terms, including the rate of transmission, recovery rate, and basic reproduction number. Calibration is done by means of secondary epidemiological data to model the different outbreak situations under different interventions by the public health. The results indicate that timely policy interventions like social distancing, vaccination interventions, and mobility limits are effective in order to decrease infection peaks, and general disease burden. The sensitivity analysis has shown that a minor alteration in the parameters of transmission may result in significant differences in the history of outbreaks, which underscores the significance of rapid and focused interventions. The paper also demonstrates how mathematical models may be used to help policymakers making comparisons between different strategies and projecting the needs in terms of healthcare resources. In addition to forecasting in the short-run, the study also highlights the relevance of mathematical modelling in long-term pandemic preparedness and response planning. The combination of epidemiological data and mathematical models makes the study a useful contribution to the optimization of the priorities of the population health concerning socio-economic factors. The findings highlight the importance of open, flexible and evidence-based modelling strategies to inform decision-making in times of health disasters. In general, the study can be added to the increasing body of evidence that shows that mathematical modelling can help eliminate the gap between theoretical analysis and practical policy-making in coping with current and upcoming pandemics.

In the wake of COVID-19 pandemic, the African Union elevated the Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (Africa CDC) to autonomous status, empowering it to declare Public Health Emergencies of Continental Concern (PHECs). This mechanism was first operationalized in 2024 in response to sustained mpox transmission across multiple African countries, despite the World Health Organization's (WHO) earlier lifting of the Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC). This article examines the PHECs as a decolonial intervention in global health governance. Applying the Critique, Reform, Withdrawal, and Transformation (CRWT) framework, I argue that the PHECs reflect both a strategic withdrawal from overreliance on the WHO PHEIC system and a transformative effort to embed African-led governance rooted in Pan-African solidarity. The article highlights mechanisms for sustaining Pandemic Prevention, Preparedness, and Response (PPPR), including tiered activation, cross-sectoral oversight, civil society engagement, and alignment with continental financial instruments. Invariably, the PHECs represent a critical reconfiguration of Africa's role in global health-from recipient of external interventions to architect of regional norms, practices, and accountability. Its promise lies not in rejecting multilateralism but in recalibrating it, embedding regional expertise, political leadership, and operational autonomy within broader global frameworks.

Deciphering gold nanotag-induced electron-transfer blockage in competitive electrochemical immunosensor: toward a nanoparticle-sandwiched structure for sensitive SARS-CoV-2 antigen detection.

Swine enteric coronaviruses (SECoVs), including transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV), and swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV), are major enteric pathogens causing severe diarrhea, dehydration, high neonatal mortality, and substantial global economic losses. Rapid viral evolution and recombination continually generate antigenically diverse variants that limit cross-protection and undermine vaccine efficacy, particularly for PEDV genogroup II strains that now dominate worldwide circulation. This review synthesizes current knowledge on epidemiology, diagnostic innovations, and emerging vaccine platforms, with emphasis on advances since 2022. Recent progress includes molecular surveillance tools, rapid point-of-care diagnostics, and next-generation vaccine technologies such as mRNA-based and virus-like particle platforms. However, significant knowledge gaps persist regarding viral evolution dynamics, co-infection synergies, and zoonotic spillover potential, particularly following documented human infections with PDCoV. Effective long-term control requires integrated genomic surveillance, strengthened farm-level biosecurity, rationally designed multivalent vaccines targeting conserved epitopes, and harmonized international surveillance systems to reduce outbreak risk and enhance pandemic preparedness at the human–animal interface.

Validation of prototype virus inactivation from seven virus families of pandemic potential with a novel low-cost, field-deployable RNA extraction and storage method.

Comparative Evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 Antigens as Capture and Detection Elements in an In-House Antigen-Based ELISA for COVID-19 Total Antibody Detection.

Optimizing environmental surveillance for early detection of zoonotic pathogens via fecal shedding modeling.

Targeting emerging viruses with phage display-driven engineered antibodies: Bridging molecular design and clinical application.

Combating Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza in South Korea: A 15-year retrospective and forward-looking study.

To elicit a robust immune response, an adjuvant can be combined with the antigen in influenza vaccine formulations. In this study, we evaluated the dose-sparing effect and safety of a squalene-based oil-in-water nanoemulsion (NE) adjuvant formulated with a cell culture-derived quadrivalent influenza vaccine. Immune responses-including anti-HA IgG antibody levels and hemagglutination inhibition (HAI) titers-were assessed, along with protection against a homologous challenge with influenza B virus (strain B/Maryland/15/2016 B/Victoria). We also investigated the influence of antigen dose on vaccine-induced immunity and the passive protection conferred to offspring via maternal antibody transfer. The NE adjuvant elicited strong anti-HA antibody responses in young adult mice, and these antibodies were effectively transferred from immunized mothers to their offspring. Furthermore, offspring born to NE-immunized mothers were protected against influenza virus challenge. Collectively, our results indicate that the NE formulation induces potent influenza-specific immune responses with dose-sparing effects and enables maternal transfer of protective immunity. These findings support the potential of NE as an effective adjuvant for MDCK cell-based influenza subunit vaccines. Importance. This study demonstrates that a squalene-based nanoemulsion (NE) adjuvant significantly enhances the immunogenicity and dose-sparing capacity of cell culture-derived quadrivalent influenza vaccines. Key advances include: (1) NE-adjuvanted vaccines achieved a remarkable 125-fold antigen dose reduction while maintaining antibody titers comparable to high-dose formulations, addressing critical challenges in pandemic preparedness; (2) NE induced robust humoral and cellular immunity, including elevated anti-HA IgG (10-fold increase vs. non-adjuvanted vaccine), improved HI titers, and enhanced IFN-γ/CD8 + T-cell responses; (3) Unique maternal-offspring protection was demonstrated, with transferred maternal antibodies conferring 100% survival in offspring against viral challenge. These findings position NE as an effective adjuvant technology that simultaneously optimizes antigen use and broadens immune protection across age groups.

This study aimed to evaluate sleep health improvement trends in Catalonia, Spain, from 2020 to 2023 following the COVID-19 pandemic, and to identify disparities across demographic and socioeconomic groups. This repeated cross-sectional study analysed 11,794 responses from eight waves of the Catalan Health Survey. Sleep health was assessed using the SATED and Ru-SATED questionnaires, covering six dimensions: Satisfaction, Alertness, Timing, Efficiency, Duration, and Regularity. Trends over time were evaluated, and stratified and interaction models assessed differences by sex, age, BMI, material deprivation, comorbidity burden, and living situation. Survey weights ensured population representativity. Sleep health improved from mid-2021, then stabilized. Efficiency plateaued by late 2020, while Satisfaction remained the most unstable dimension. Sleep regularity diminished during the 2020 lockdowns but improved promptly afterwards. Females consistently scored lower than males, though their improvement trajectories were similar (p-for-interaction=0.906). Older adults (65+) and individuals with excess weight exhibited distinctive improvement trends (p-for-interaction=0.023). Material deprivation was the strongest predictor of poor sleep health and delayed improvement (p-for-interaction=0.024). Living alone had a temporary negative impact during lockdowns, which resolved by 2022. Finally, comorbidity burden affected baseline scores but not improvement trends (p-for-interaction=0.467). Sleep health improvement post-pandemic was uneven across sleep dimensions and population subgroups. Behavioural sleep dimensions improved earlier, while subjective satisfaction lagged. Socioeconomic factors, particularly material deprivation, were strongly associated with poorer and slower improvements. These findings highlight the importance of incorporating sleep health into pandemic preparedness and tailoring interventions to address both behavioural and structural determinants of health.

Doctors' wellbeing is an essential, yet often overlooked component of resilient health systems. Burnout, often described as the 'canary in the coalmine', offers a measurable, validated indicator of workforce strain that has direct implications for patient safety, quality of care and crisis response. This article argues for the integration of doctors' burnout into sentinel surveillance frameworks as part of South Africa's pandemic preparedness strategy. By embedding burnout monitoring within existing occupational health and surveillance systems, policymakers can generate actionable data, strengthen workforce resilience, and safeguard system performance during future epidemics.

Background/Objectives: The COVID-19 pandemic presented an urgent global need to quickly vaccinate health workers (HWs). We used this unique circumstance to assess whether mature influenza vaccination programs for HWs facilitated rapid deployment of COVID-19 vaccines in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Methods: We used publicly available population-level COVID-19 vaccination coverage data from the World Health Organization (WHO) COVID-19 PowerBI Dashboard for 60 LMICs to investigate general population coverage with the COVID-19 vaccine over the first year of vaccine rollout. We also evaluated country-level policy and program data reported to the WHO–United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) electronic Joint Reporting Form (eJRF) in 2022 or earlier to determine if the presence of a mature (≥2 years of influenza vaccine introduction in HWs prior to 2019) HW influenza vaccination program was associated with more rapid COVID-19 vaccine deployment and/or pandemic preparedness. We used a mixed-effects beta regression model to investigate whether having a mature HW influenza vaccination program was associated with COVID-19 vaccination coverage levels and/or deployment timeliness. Finally, to provide a better understanding of the possible relationship between the presence of a mature HW influenza vaccination program and the COVID-19 vaccine rollout, we analyzed interview data collected during COVID-19 vaccine post-introduction evaluations (cPIEs). Results: Twenty-four of our study countries (40%) had mature HW influenza vaccination programs prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, and 16 (27%) participated in cPIEs. The overall adjusted mean general-population COVID-19 vaccination coverage at 12 months post-deployment in countries with mature HW influenza vaccination programs was 46% (95% CI: (35%, 56%)), compared with 25% (95% CI: (19%, 32%)) in countries without such programs. Vaccination coverage was 2.5 times higher in countries with mature programs (adjusted odds ratio 2.5, 95% CI: (1.5, 4.5); p = 0.001). Conclusions: Our analysis suggests that mature influenza vaccination programs for HWs were associated with timelier and more complete COVID-19 vaccination rollout.

Influenza A viruses continually pose pandemic threats, underscoring the need for timely development of Candidate Vaccine Viruses (CVVs) that meet regulatory expectations for vaccine manufacturing. This protocol describes the procedures used at CDC to generate recombinant CVVs through reverse genetics in accordance with World Health Organization guidelines and CDC's internal Quality System Requirements (QSR)1-3. The QSR incorporates relevant principles from the FDA's Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) and Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) regulations, providing a structured framework that ensures documentation integrity, material traceability, and quality oversight during all stages of CVV development. The protocol provides detailed steps for plasmid preparation, virus rescue in Vero cells, and amplification in embryonated chicken eggs, and outlines characterization assays used to confirm the suitability and safety attributes of each CVV. This standardized, quality-driven workflow has supported multiple regulatory submissions and facilitated the transition from CVV development to vaccine manufacturing, strengthening pandemic preparedness.

Early in an infectious disease outbreak, key policy questions include whether and how the outbreak can be brought under control. In the epidemiological modelling literature, analyses of outbreak controllability have often focused on metrics such as reproduction numbers (which quantify the number of infections generated by each infected individual). However, whether an outbreak can be controlled is a complex question, depending on both the precise definition of 'under control' used and numerous factors affecting decision-makers' ability to implement transmission-reducing measures. Here, based on discussions at the Isaac Newton Institute's 'Modelling and inference for pandemic preparedness' programme (5-30 August 2024), we describe a wide range of factors affecting outbreak controllability in practice. Programme participants came from institutions in ten countries, enabling discussions to reflect experiences of using models to inform policy in different settings. We divide the factors according to whether they relate predominantly to characteristics of the pathogen, host population or available interventions, and describe policy considerations when assessing whether an outbreak is controllable.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of government epidemic control policies centered on diagnostic testing and examined their impact on the in vitro diagnostics (IVD) industry. It also analyzed the complex interplay among policy interventions, epidemic dynamics, and the IVD industry's value chain to identify key leverage points for managing future public health crises. A system dynamics (SD) model calibrated using national data from the Republic of Korea simulated the interactions between epidemic progression and the IVD value chain. We conducted a scenario analysis encompassing 6 policy interventions: research and development (R&D) investment, public-private collaboration, regulatory easing, diagnostic test performance, testing intensity, and social distancing. Policies promoting investment, public-private collaboration, and regulatory easing accelerated the market entry of diagnostics, thereby reducing infections and deaths. However, these interventions were associated with lower overall industry revenue, attributable to increased market competition and a reduced patient population. A critical trade-off was noted: although regulatory speed is advantageous, using low-sensitivity diagnostics substantially worsened public health outcomes. Aggressive testing strategies and stringent social distancing were also confirmed to be effective in reducing both infections and mortality. This study provides a strategic framework for understanding interactions between pandemic control policies and the IVD industry. Sustained pre-crisis investment in R&D, public-private networks, and public health infrastructure is essential for effective pandemic preparedness. During a crisis, policymakers must carefully manage the critical trade-off between regulatory speed and diagnostic quality to ensure that rapid responses do not compromise public health outcomes.

Trust at risk: Why public health must lead the use of AI in pandemic preparedness.

The continuous evolution and global spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 viruses, particularly clade 2.3.4.4b, pose major challenges for pandemic preparedness. This study evaluates a low-dose inactivated split-virus vaccine derived from H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b, formulated with an Alum/CpG adjuvant, in a preclinical female mouse model. The vaccine induces strong humoral and cellular immunity, generating high titers of cross-reactive antibodies against diverse H5 hemagglutinin (HA) and across different N1 neuraminidase (NA) glycoproteins. The Alum/CpG adjuvant supports substantial antigen dose sparing and promotes a balanced Th1/Th2 profile. Functional assays show potent virus neutralization, neuraminidase inhibition, and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity, alongside robust antigen-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses, efficient control of lung viral replication, and reduced lung inflammation. Vaccinated mice are fully protected from lethal challenge with both homologous H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b and heterologous clade 1 viruses, despite low hemagglutination inhibition (HAI) titers. Electron microscopy polyclonal epitope mapping shows serum antibodies recognizing multiple epitopes on homologous HA and NA, with cross-reactivity to conserved epitopes on heterologous proteins, indicating broad recognition. Together, these findings support this vaccine candidate as a promising strategy to provide broad, multifunctional, and durable immunity against current and emerging H5N1 threats.

HighlightsPublic health relevance—How does this work relate to a public health issue?The study addresses persistent global governance failures exposed during COVID-19, including inequity, weak coordination, and limited accountability mechanisms that undermine global health security.It evaluates the WHO Pandemic Agreement through an evidence-based governance lens, identifying operational gaps that directly affect preparedness and public health protection.Public health significance—Why is this work of significance to public health?The GGFH Framework shifts pandemic preparedness from a health-sector focus to an integrated governance-for-health model, enabling coordinated action across health and non-health sectors.The GGFH Framework attempt to complement the implementation of the WHO Pandemic Agreement by addressing partially resolved areas, providing practical governance solutions to gaps in financing, accountability, equity, and cross-sectoral coordination.Public health implications—What are the key implications or messages for practitioners, policy makers and/or researchers in public health?The GGFH offers policymakers a validated governance alternative that replaces fragmented, market-driven responses with a model based on global public goods, enforceable obligations, and shared accountability.A phased implementation approach is recommended, prioritizing foundational legal, leadership, and financing reforms to enable effective rollout of subsequent equity, accountability, and cross-sectoral measures.Background: The COVID-19 pandemic exposed major deficiencies in global health governance, including fragmented authority, inequitable resource distribution, and weak compliance mechanisms. Although the WHO Pandemic Agreement (2025) addresses several of these gaps, significant operational and institutional challenges remain. This study aims to develop and empirically validate a Global Governance for Health (GGFH) Framework that strengthens leadership, financing, equity, and legal accountability across global, regional, and national levels. Methods: A three-round Delphi study was conducted. Thirty-one experts from diverse sectors, including public health, international law, economics, environment, and diplomacy, evaluated 32 structured governance statements across seven domains. Experts rated all statements using a 7-point Likert scale. Consensus was determined using a strict threshold median ≥ 6; SD ≤ 1.35; ≥75% agreement. Open-text comments were systematically reviewed through thematic analysis. All statements were systematically mapped to the WHO Pandemic Agreement articles to identify areas lacking operational clarity or enforceability. Results: All seven governance domains achieved consensus by Round 3. High agreement emerged on strengthening WHO leadership, implementing sustainable and equitable financing mechanisms, embedding LMIC representation, establishing legal preparedness and capacity-building, and integrating independent accountability tools. Correlation and interdependence analyses demonstrated that governance goals form an integrated, mutually reinforcing system, with financing, equity, and legal frameworks identified as core enablers of effective treaty implementation. Conclusions: The Delphi process validated a comprehensive and operational Global Governance for Health Framework. The GGFH complements the WHO Pandemic Agreement by addressing its unresolved governance, financing, and equity limitations and offers a structured roadmap to guide global pandemic preparedness and treaty implementation.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N1) (H5N1 hereafter) is an emerging pathogen in mammals. The recent recognition of H5N1 in dairy cattle increases opportunities for human exposure and infection and may accelerate a trajectory toward sustained human-to-human transmission. Furthermore, the presence of virus at high concentration in unpasteurized milk raises new risks for humans, especially infants and children. Milk has been identified as a vehicle for viral transmission in and between mammalian species, including humans. Sialic acids (SAs) found on cell surfaces are important mediators of species susceptibility to specific influenza strains and play an important role in viral tropism. New data demonstrate that SA receptors with α2,3 linkages capable of binding avian influenza strains are present in human mammary tissue. The presence of SA receptors that can bind avian influenza and a comparative analysis of viral transmission risk of raw and pasteurized milk in several mammalian species have implications for human milk feeding. During this period of sporadic human infections with H5N1, further research and collaboration is warranted to address the potential risk of human milk contamination. Infants and children are particularly vulnerable to emerging infections during pandemics and have unique needs that may be overlooked. Pandemic preparedness must address the needs of all populations at all life stages, including pregnancy and infancy, and must include support for the safety of human milk.