Palm Oil Mill Wastewater Research Articles

Development of energy efficient flower-shaped defective TiO2 materials for wastewater remediation of agro-industries and oil refineries

Wastewater containing high concentrations of phenolic compounds (PhCs), produced in large quantities by the world's expanding agro-industries and oil refineries, is one of the main polluters of rivers and streams. It is economically and technically reasonable to treat such wastewater using TiO2-based photocatalysis. But in order for photocatalysis to be used on a large scale, it must degrade PhCs efficiently while using less electrical energy (EE) and treating them at lower costs (t-cost). In this study, a modified hydrothermal method was used to produce the flower-shaped defective black TiO2 (BTNFs) from pre-prepared black TiO2 nanoparticles (BTNPs) as an energy saving strategy in wastewater remediation. The adsorption and photocatalytic performance, energy needs, and t-costs for both materials were examined for photodegradation of PhCs from simulated oil refinery wastewater (ORW), palm oil mill wastewater (POW), and olive oil mill wastewater (OMW). The findings revealed that BTNFs have improved properties which made them more effective in adsorption of PhCs and photocatalyzing their degradation. Combining photocatalysis and adsorption based on BTNFs led to an improved removal (49.75–98.40%) of PhCs depending on the wastewater matrix and reduced the EE consumption and t-cost by 8.96–23.86% for treating OMW, POW, and ORW.

Enhancing microbial fuel cell performance for sustainable treatment of palm oil mill wastewater using carbon cloth anode coated with activated carbon

Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are a viable source of clean and renewable energy from wastewater and gaining attention on a global scale. Thus, this research work focuses on the energy production from high-strength palm oil mill wastewater using MFCs. A state-of-the-art technique for improving the performance of MFCs by covering a carbon fibre anode with various sized powdered activated carbon (PAC) particles was investigated. In addition, the MFCs were tested at various hydraulic retention times (HRT) to assess the performance displayed by modified MFCs. Results showed that a relatively smaller amount of PAC with a diameter of 13 μm coated at the anode during the cultivation stage at a shorter hydraulic retention time (4 days) would produce 504.1 ± 8.7 mW m−3 of power, 39.9 ± 2.9% of chemical oxygen demand removal efficiency, and 299 ± 63 mL of biogas. While, MFC running at a longer hydraulic retention time (12 days) was able to produce more power and had better effluent quality than those operating at a shorter hydraulic retention period.

Photodegrading hazardous pollutants using black TiO2 materials with different morphology and estimation of energy requirement

Black TiO2 materials were synthesized with different morphologies, including nanoparticles (NPs) and nanonails (NNs), and their performance for the photodegradation of hazardous phenols from model palm oil mill wastewater (TPOME) was compared. For the first time, the black TiO2 NNs were prepared by hydrothermal processing, followed by HCl treatment of the TiO2 NPs that had already been produced using an improved glycerol-assisted precipitation method. Four phenolic compounds (phenol, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and gallic acid) were combined to represent the model wastewater based on their relative concentrations in actual TPOME. The TiO2 NNs outperformed the TiO2 NPs in the photocatalytic degradation of phenols due to their improved properties, including higher visible light absorption and surface area and lower bandgap and rate of electrons and holes recombination. The removal rate and energy requirements of the TiO2 NNs were also impactful. The TiO2 NNs degraded more than 99% of individual phenols in 210 min and 84.22% of the total phenols in 270 min with the least amount of electrical energy used (96.36 kW/m3), the lowest cost of treatment of a unit volume of model TPOME, and the highest removal rate constant.

Isolation and screening of microorganisms for high yield of succinic acid production.

This study involves the isolation of succinic acid (SA)-producing microorganisms from different samples, including the rumen, sludge, soil, and wastewater. For primary screening, 29 isolates exhibited a zone of clearance around the colony, indicating acid production. For secondary screening using thin-layer chromatography, only two isolates symbolized SA production according to their Rf values. These two isolates were further identified as Bacillus velezensis and Enterococcus gallinarum by phylogenetic analysis using the neighbor-joining method. The high SA concentrations of 50.2 and 66.9g/L were produced by B. velezensis and E. gallinarum with an SA yield of 0.836 and 1.12g/g glucose, respectively. The high SA concentration from these newly isolated strains was achieved with a low formation of unwanted acids compared with those from Actinobacillus succinogenes ATCC 55618. Moreover, E. gallinarum was cultured in palm oil mill wastewater (POMW) and molasses, which were cheap substrates. The high SA production of 73.9g/L with low other acids (the ratio of SA to total acids=0.917) was achieved using POMW and molasses (80:20) as substrates.

Effect of temperature and hydraulic retention time on hydrogen production from palm oil mill effluent (POME) in an integrated up-flow anaerobic sludge fixed-film (UASFF) bioreactor

The current state of palm oil mill wastewater treatment focuses solely on open ponding or closed lagoon systems for biogas production. However, efforts to convert this wastewater into biohydrogen are limited. Therefore, this research investigates the feasibility of converting palm oil mill effluent (POME) for biohydrogen production via dark fermentation. Temperature and hydraulic retention time (HRT) effects on biohydrogen production and COD removal efficiency in an up-flow anaerobic sludge fixed-film (UASFF) bioreactor were investigated. The experiment was carried out and analysed using a central composite design (CCD) and the Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The hydrogen (H 2 ) yield, H 2 production rate (HPR), and COD removal efficiency were investigated as responses. HPR increased significantly by 28.8 folds as temperature increased from 37 °C to 53.5 °C (transition from mesophilic to thermophilic) at HRT of 3 h. Meanwhile, the COD removal efficiency significantly increased from 24.76% to 33.33% between 4 to 9 h of HRT. Maximum H 2 yield of 0.95 L H 2 g −1 COD removed , HPR of 10.39 L H 2 d −1 , and 35.9% COD removal were reported at the optimum HRT and temperature of 7 h and 57 °C, respectively. This study indicates that under the thermophilic condition and short HRT, POME could be treated while producing biohydrogen using the UASFF bioreactor. • The temperature has a significant impact on hydrogen yield and hydrogen production rate. • Low HRT significantly impacted the COD removal efficiency of POME. • Optimum temperature and HRT were 57 °C and 7 h, respectively. • Acetobacter spp. is found to be dominant under a thermophilic condition in the H 2 -UASFF unit.

Effect of Nickel Concentration on Ozone Production using Nickel-Antimony Doped Tin Oxide for Wastewater Treatment

Nickel-antimony doped tin oxide (NATO) catalyst has greatly considered its capability to treat high organic matter and eliminate colour in wastewater as palm oil mill wastewater with electrochemical ozone generation. This study presents the optimal Ni content of NATO and its properties to enhance ozone generation. The NATO anodes were fabricated by dip-coating, varying the Ni content between 0.5% and 5%. The key findings show that all anodes showed a single phase of rutile structure with the cracked mud on the surface. The binding energies of the Sb3d3/2 peak at 540.48 eV and 541.58 eV agree with Sb3+ and Sb5+, respectively. The optimal ozone current efficiency of 37% at the current density of ca. 0.22 A cm-2 in 0.5 M H2SO4 at 2.7V was obtained on the NATO anode with 2% Ni content calcined at 700 oC. The palm oil mill wastewater treatment result showed that decolourisation TOC and COD removal efficiency increased with increasing electrolysis time. The colour removal efficiency achieved was more than 85% for a reaction time of 15 min. The efficiency of TOC and COD removal was reached ca. 80% in 20 min. The overall results appeared that NATO with electrochemical ozone generation could be employed to treat palm oil mill wastewater with high efficiency due to •OH and O3.

Palm Oil Industries in Malaysia and Possible Treatment Technologies for Palm Oil Mill Effluent: A Review

Palm oil industries have become the main sector to boost the economic revenue in tropical countries, especially in South East Asia. In the recent years, the global production of palm oil reached 72 million metric tons in 2018, increasing from about 68 million metric tons in 2017. During that period, Malaysia is currently the second world producer of palm oil after neighbouring country Indonesia. Both countries are the leading exporters of palm oil with 84 % of worldwide production. A detailed analysis of the palm oil business in Malaysia, the environmental issues that have arisen, and the treatment technology used to effectively treat palm oil mill wastewater are reviewed to gain an understanding of environmental sustainability. In Malaysia, most of the oil palm plantations are owned by private conglomerates (61 %), followed by the independent smallholders (16 %), the Federal Land Development Authority (13 %), state agencies (6 %), the Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority (3 %), and Rubber Industry Smallholders Development Authority (1 %). However, the rate of deforestation has increased due to the expansion of oil palm plantations in Malaysia. Palm oil mill effluent is also considered as one of the major environmental issues since it reduces the water quality index. Some techniques are implemented to treat palm oil mill effluent, such as anaerobic ponding systems, integrated anaerobic-aerobic bioreactors, coagulation and flocculation, thermochemical treatment, vermicomposting, membrane filtration, photocatalysis, moving bed biofilm reactors, and zero liquid discharge. Zero liquid discharge method is considered an appropriate method since this method provides a better waste recovery.

Valorization of palm oil mill wastewater for integrated production of microbial oil and biogas in a biorefinery approach

This work presents an integrated biorefinery concept combining two biological platforms for the valorization of palm oil mill effluents and for simultaneous production of high market value products, such as microbial oils and bioenergy. Palm oil mill effluents were aerobically fermented to produce lipids and subsequently the effluent from the fermentation was used as influent feedstock in an anaerobic digester for biogas production. It was found that pasteurization of the wastewater before fermentation by Yarrowia lipolytica TISTR 5151 was mandatory for efficient lipid production yielding 159.2 mg lipids/g-COD. In contrast, fermentation with untreated wastewater failed to produce lipids (3.10–43.51 mg lipids/g-COD), but instead supported the growth of several indigenous bacteria (e.g., Asaia sp., Lactobacillus brevis and Acetobacter sp.) with 6.57%–65.24% of relative abundance. Regarding biogas production, a maximum of 74% of the theoretical methane yield (280 mL/g-COD) in continuous reactor operation was achieved. The dominant bacteria, Synergistales sp. (18.19%) and Bacteroidetes sp. (15.96%), found at steady state period in the biogas reactor are known for acetate, butyrate, and hydrogen production. Moreover, within archaeal population, Methanosarcina thermophila (2.27%) and Methanoculleus thermophilus (1.38%) were identified as responsible for biomethane production.

Isolation of Bacteria with Purifying Potential and Application in the Treatment of Effluents from an Artisanal Palm Oil Mill in the Littoral Region of Cameroon

It is with the aim of solving the problem of generating large quantities of effluents from palm oil production in the littoral region of Cameroon that this study was carried out with the general objective of reducing the pollutant load of these effluents by using bacteria. To this end, raw palm oil mill wastewater samples were taken for their characterization by evaluating the in-situ (Temperature, pH and (CND) Conductivity) and ex-situ (SS (suspended solid), COD (chemical oxygen demand), BOD (biological oxygen demand) and O/F (oil and fat)) parameters. In addition, bacterial isolation and screening were carried out from samples of contaminated soil based on the production of lipolytic enzymes, the degradation of oils and fats and the reduction of the pollutant load. Results revealed that 28 isolates were able to reduce the pollution parameters of palm oil mill effluents of which D17, D22 and D23 seemed to be the best purifying isolates. The characterization of the POME (palm oil mill effluent), basing the temperature, pH, CND, O/F, SS, BOD and COD showed us values greater than the recommended rate. Partial characterization of these isolates revealed that D17 and D23 are bacteria that could reduce the polluting parameters of the effluents belonged to the Bacillus sp. genus and D22 to the Acinetobacter sp. genus. These results are satisfactory and the bacteria strains obtained could be used in bioremediation.

Solids-liquid separation and solar drying of palm oil mill wastewater sludge: Potential for sludge reuse

In this study, empty palm fruit bunch fibre was used for solids-liquid separation of palm oil mill wastewater and the sludge was sun-dried for potential uses as soil conditioner or solid fuel. The fibre was manually compressed into a wooden mould to obtain a fibre bulk density of 70 ​kg/m3. A composite wastewater sample was poured evenly over the surface of the fibre. The wet solids were sun-dried for 14 days to achieve a moisture content of <10%. The mass of each mould was determined daily after sunset throughout the drying period. The nutrients content and calorific value of the dried sludge were determined using standard methods. The solids-liquid separation process was able to achieve >99% solids and up to 65% COD removal. Analysis of the dried sludge showed nutrients content (% of dry weight) of 0.84 for total nitrogen, 0.15 for phosphorus and 0.49 for potassium. The mean calorific value of the dried sludge was 17.1 ​MJ/kg. The results show the potential of sun-dried palm oil mill wastewater sludge for use as sustainable soil conditioner or solid fuel. The effluent from the solids-liquid separation must be given additional treatment as it may still contain harmful constituents.

Identification and cultivation of hydrogenotrophic methanogens from palm oil mill effluent for high methane production

By means of biorefinery, biogas production through anaerobic digestion is one of the most common treatments of wastewater in the palm oil industry. After biogas production, the treated palm oil mill effluent (POME) is generally discharged into the environment. However, certain level of hazardous compounds still exists in the treated wastewater, which can lead to the pollution of water bodies. In this study, we have investigated the dynamics of volatile organic acids dwelling in consecutive POME treatment lagoons as well as identified, and categorized, microbial species responsible for the treatment process. Bacteria and methanogens, both hydrogenotrophic and acetoclastic, related to methane production were identified using mcrA and 16S rRNA genes specific primers. Two hydrogenotrophic methanogens, Methanoculleus marisnigri and Methanoculleus chikugoensis, were found abundant in accordance with high formate concentration throughout the process of anaerobic digestion. This study has also isolated eight consortia of microbes that yielded different methane productions by utilizing formate as the substrate in the synthetic medium. The consortia of a group, containing M. marisnigri, M. chikugoensis, uncultured bacteria, Aminobacterium sp., and Ruminobacillus xylanolyticum, produced the highest methane yield of 259 mL/g COD after 25 days of incubation in the laboratory. The findings from this study are contributing to optimize and increase biogas production in POME, which will allow higher efficiency in palm oil mill wastewater treatment.

Synthesis and application of polyacrylamide grafted magnetic cellulose flocculant for palm oil wastewater treatment

Abstract Accumulation of organic load in palm oil mill wastewater has become a major issue of concern. In this study, a new polyacrylamide grafted onto magnetic cellulose (PAM-g-MagCell) was successfully produced by microwave assisted synthesis and used as flocculant for the removal of total suspended solid (TSS), turbidity, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and colour. The physical and chemical properties of the PAM-g-MagCell were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, vibrating sample magnetometer, zeta potential and elemental analysis. A jar test method was employed to perform flocculation, which was evaluated on anaerobically treated palm oil mill effluent suspension. The flocculants dosage, initial pH and settling time were varied to study the effects of these variables on contaminant removal from wastewater. The best conditions for the removal of TSS, turbidity, COD, and colour were achieved at flocculants dosage of 1.5 g/L, pH of 8.0 and settling time of 30 min. Under these conditions, the removal of TSS, turbidity, COD, and colour were 82.97 %, 88.62 %, 53.23 % and 91.76 %, respectively. The PAM-g-MagCell also showed better performance when compared with cellulose, magnetic cellulose (MagCell), polyacrylamide, and alum. In conclusion, all the results show that the PAM-g-MagCell as alternative flocculant has great application prospects in the removal of organic matters from palm oil mill wastewater.

The Impact of Palm Oil Mill Wastewater on the Soil Properties of Paddy Fields

A paddy field is a wetland area which always muddy and constantly flooded by irrigation. This land possesses impermeable layers, hence the irrigation water quality ought to be maintained, to prevent changes in its properties, as well as the paddy field features. Furthermore, wetland pollution by the palm oil mill wastewater PT BSS was experienced in June 2018, characterized by a lowered quality of water in the fields of Manggopoh Village, Agam District, West Sumatra. The purpose of this study, therefore, is to determine the effect of PT BSS palm oil mill wastewater on the quality of paddy fields, using a survey method to obtain samples through random sampling techniques. This research was conducted downstream, based on the direction of flow along the irrigation channel as well as on the uncontaminated fields upstream. Furthermore, a ring and ground drill was used in the collection process, and analysis for physical and chemical properties was conducted in the Soil laboratory of the faculty of Agriculture, Andalas University. Subsequently, the evaluation involved averaging the soil data, followed by a comparison with the criterion level of damage, and ANOVA was used to estimate the difference between sample point locations, at a significance level of 0.05%. The results obtained indicate the absence of any changes in soil properties, in contrast with the water characteristics that can cause damage because the paddy soil is in a saturated state. Thus, wastewater is unable to permeate the soil matrix. Hence, it does not change the properties, since the values obtained passed the threshold criteria for soil.

Microbial Lipid Accumulation through Bioremediation of Palm Oil Mill Wastewater by Bacillus cereus

The wastewater burden and increased energy demands have spurred interest in finding possible solutions that could concomitantly address both issues. Microbial lipid production, together with the bioremediation of wastewater, could be a promising solution to address both problems. In this context, the present study was designed to evaluate the potential of Bacillus cereus (B. cereus) for accumulating microbial lipids through the bioremediation of palm oil mill effluent (POME) in batch mode fermentation. Different dilutions of POME media (25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) were used to determine the optimum POME concentration for enabling the maximum yield of biomass and maximum lipid production. The 50% (v/v) POME was found to have potential for the highest biomass growth (8.09 g/L) and lipid accumulation (1.46 g/L), with a lipid content of 18.04% (dry weight basis). B. cereus accumulated a higher biomass and lipid content than other bacterial strains, such as Rhodococcus opacus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, under similar conditions. On the other hand, the degree of bioremediation was assessed by evaluating several wastewater parameters and determining the seed germination index (GI) of Vigna radiata. POME treated with B. cereus displayed higher GI values than the untreated samples due to the significant remediation of detrimental organics present in the POME. This finding was further confirmed by the substantial reduction in pollution load, particularly in chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) for 50% POME, thus demonstrating removal efficiencies of 79.35% and 72.65%, respectively. Therefore, the results of this study suggest that B. cereus cultivation in POME could be a promising technique for attaining higher biomass growth and lipid production in conjunction with the bioremediation of POME. The approach of achieving dual objectives that is utilized in the present study provides a novel strategy for palm oil millers.

Introducing a new GHG emission calculation approach for alternative methane reduction measures in the wastewater treatment of a palm oil mill

Palm oil mill wastewater treatment is a significant source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The wastewater, palm oil mill effluent (POME), carries substantial amounts of organic matter: If left in ponds, most of this organic matter would decompose relatively quickly into methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide. A belt filter press has been introduced as a means to separate organic matter from the wastewater. Solidified organic matter, the belt press cake recovered with a belt filter press, can be further used as organic fertilizer in the plantation. The aim of this study was to confirm that there is a reduction of CH4 emissions associated with the belt filter press and to find a simple method for determining the reduction at the palm oil mills. CH4 measurements and total organic carbon (TOC) analysis were conducted in a palm oil mill in Malaysia. The emissions were measured both in ponds with solid separation and in baseline open ponds without any CH4 reduction measures. TOC was measured in POME and in belt press cake. By removing organic matter, the measured palm oil mill CH4 emissions of the POME ponds were reduced by 11%. The reduction was as high as 54% in the single pond where the belt filter press was installed. A calculative 13% reduction in methane formation potential was confirmed with TOC measurement. TOC measurement was found to be a simple method worth considering for determining GHG reduction.

Microbiota of Palm Oil Mill Wastewater in Malaysia.

This study was aimed at identifying indigenous microorganisms from palm oil mill effluent (POME) and to ascertain the microbial load. Isolation and identification of indigenous microorganisms was subjected to standard microbiological methods and sequencing of the 16S rRNA and 18S rRNA genes. Sequencing of the 16S rRNA and 18S rRNA genes for the microbial strains signifies that they were known as Micrococcus luteus 101PB, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia 102PB, Bacillus cereus 103PB, Providencia vermicola 104PB, Klebsiella pneumoniae 105PB, Bacillus subtilis 106PB, Aspergillus fumigatus 107PF, Aspergillus nomius 108PF, Aspergillus niger 109PF and Meyerozyma guilliermondii 110PF. Results revealed that the population of total heterotrophic bacteria (THB) ranged from 9.5 × 105 – 7.9 × 106 cfu/mL. The total heterotrophic fungi (THF) ranged from 2.1 × 104 – 6.4 × 104 cfu/mL. Total viable heterotrophic indigenous microbial population on CMC agar ranged from 8.2 × 105 – 9.1 × 106 cfu/mL and 1.4 × 103 – 3.4 × 103 cfu/mL for bacteria and fungi respectively. The microbial population of oil degrading bacteria (ODB) ranged from 6.4 × 105 – 4.8 × 106 cfu/mL and the oil degrading fungi (ODF) ranged from 2.8 × 103 – 4.7 × 104 cfu/mL. The findings revealed that microorganisms flourish well in POME. Therefore, this denotes that isolating native microorganisms from POME is imperative for effectual bioremediation, biotreatment and biodegradation of industrial wastewaters.

Utilization of Microalgae Cultivated in Palm Oil Mill Wastewater to Produce Lipid and Carbohydrate by Employing Microwave- Assisted Irradiation

Background: Palm oil mill effluent (POME) is dominant agroindustrial wastewater in Indonesia and Malaysia. Some kind of microalgae can utilize the wastewater as media of cultivation, and produce value-added compounds. However, the production of lipid and carbohydrate from microalgae cultivated on untreated POME medium were not clearly reported. Keywords: Carbohydrate, lipid, microalgae, microwave, palm oil mill effluent.

The culture or co-culture of Candida rugosa and Yarrowia lipolytica strain rM-4A, or incubation with their crude extracellular lipase and laccase preparations, for the biodegradation of palm oil mill wastewater

Wastewater generated by the palm oil industry contains a high concentration of oil, grease and phenolic compounds, which makes it difficult to treat. The aim of this research was to evaluate the ability of free Candida rugosa and Yarrowia lipolytica rM-4A yeast cell cultures, as a single yeast strain and as a co-culture, as well as their crude extracellular enzyme preparations, to reduce the total phenolic compounds, triglycerides and chemical oxygen demand (COD) level in palm oil mill effluent (POME) that contains high amounts total phenolic compounds (9783 mg L−1) and oil and grease (7762 mg L−1). Culture with Y. lipolytica rM-4A effectively reduced the total phenolic content in undiluted POME, resulting in removal of 36% of the total phenolic content after 96 h. The highest removal of triglyceride (98.5%) and COD (60.3%) were observed in undiluted POME treated by the co-culture of C. rugosa and Y. lipolytica for 120 h. Triglyceride was removed rapidly by the extracellular lipase produced by C. rugosa, reaching 93% degradation after 48 h. This research revealed the excellent potential of both crude extracellular enzyme preparations and the co-culture of the two yeasts in the pretreatment of high fat and oil containing POME.

Recovery of useful chemicals from palm oil mill wastewater

A two-step process consisting of pyrolysis of dried sludge and catalytic upgrading of pyrolysed liquid was proposed. Wastewater from a palm oil mill was separated to solid cake and liquid by filtration. The solid cake was dried and pyrolysed at 773 K. Liquid product obtained from the pyrolysis had two immiscible aqueous and oil phases (PL-A and PL-O). Identification of chemicals in PL-A and PL-O indicated that both phases contained various chemicals with unsaturated bonds, such as carboxylic acids and alcohols, however, most of the chemicals could not be identified. Catalytic upgrading of PL-A and PL-O over ZrO2 ·FeOx were separately performed using a fixed bed reactor at various conditions, T = 513-723 K and mass of catalyst to feed rate = 0.25-10 h. The main components in the liquid products of PL-A upgrading were methanol and acetone whereas they were acetone and phenol in the case of PL-O upgrading. More than 15% of carbon in raw material was deposited on the catalyst. To reduce the carbon deposition, the used catalyst was treated with air at 823 K. This simple treatment could reasonably regenerate the catalyst only for the case of PL-A catalytic upgrading.

Comparison of Oleo- vs Petro-Sourcing of Fatty Alcohols via Cradle-to-Gate Life Cycle Assessment.

Alcohol ethoxylates surfactants are produced via ethoxylation of fatty alcohol (FA) with ethylene oxide. The source of FA could be either palm kernel oil (PKO) or petrochemicals. The study aimed to compare the potential environmental impacts for PKO-derived FA (PKO-FA) and petrochemicals-derived FA (petro-FA). Cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment has been performed for this purpose because it enables understanding of the impacts across the life cycle and impact categories. The results show that petro-FA has overall lower average greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (~2.97 kg CO2e) compared to PKO-FA (~5.27 kg CO2e). (1) The practices in land use change for palm plantations, (2) end-of-life treatment for palm oil mill wastewater effluent and (3) end-of-life treatment for empty fruit bunches are the three determining factors for the environmental impacts of PKO-FA. For petro-FA, n-olefin production, ethylene production and thermal energy production are the main factors. We found the judicious decisions on land use change, effluent treatment and solid waste treatment are key to making PKO-FA environmentally sustainable. The sensitivity results show the broad distribution for PKO-FA due to varying practices in palm cultivation. PKO-FA has higher impacts on average for 12 out of 18 impact categories evaluated. For the base case, when accounted for uncertainty and sensitivity analyses results, the study finds that marine eutrophication, agricultural land occupation, natural land occupation, fossil depletion, particulate matter formation, and water depletion are affected by the sourcing decision. The sourcing of FA involves trade-offs and depends on the specific practices through the PKO life cycle from an environmental impact perspective.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s11743-016-1867-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.