Palm Kernel Shell Research Articles

Utilizing Agro-Waste as Aggregate in Cement Composites: A Comprehensive Review of Properties, Global Trends, and Applications

Amid growing environmental concerns and the increasing demand for sustainable construction practices, the exploration of alternative materials in building applications has garnered significant attention. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the use of agricultural waste as an aggregate in cementitious composites, with a particular focus on palm kernel shells, coconut shells, hazelnut, peanut and pistachio shells, stone fruit shells and pits, date and grape seeds, rice husks, maize (corn) cobs, and sunflower seed shells. For each type of agro-waste, the paper discusses key physical and mechanical properties, global production volumes, and primary countries of origin. Furthermore, it offers an in-depth analysis of existing research on the incorporation of these materials into cement-based composites, highlighting both the advantages and limitations of their use. Although the integration of agro-waste into construction materials presents certain challenges, the vast quantities of agricultural residues generated globally underscore the urgency and potential of their reuse. In line with circular economy principles, this review advocates for the valorization of agro-waste through innovative and sustainable applications within the construction industry.

Comprehensive characterization of Ecuadorian lignocellulosic biomass in terms of their candidacy for bioenergy purposes

Abstract Bioenergy underpins a wide variety of technologies to transform biomass into fuels, chemicals, and biomaterials through sustainable routes. Significant advances in biomass valorization towards understanding their potential for energy production have occurred over the last decades. However, the complexity gap to utilize the entire lignocellulosic biomass simultaneously, remains overwhelming largely, which severely impedes the development of a bioresources-based economy. The exploration of complex characteristics of lignocellulosic biomass fractions, including both chemical and structural aspects, is imperative. In the present study, 17 Ecuadorian lignocellulosic biomass were prepared and extensively characterized to understand their compositional and structural characteristics through analytical approaches such as carbon–hydrogen–nitrogen–sulfur analysis, bomb calorimetric, X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Regarding volatile matter content, all biomass sources presented remarkable levels ranging from 65.01 to 86.13%. Ash content was found in a range of 5.67 to 17.53%. Results show that the banana pseudostem displayed the highest cellulose content (59.56 %). The lowest cellulose content was recorded in oil palm kernel shell (9.55%). The largest calorific value was found in sugarcane bagasse (22.62 MJ kg-1), while the minimum (12.50 MJ kg-1) was found in banana rachis. The highest crystallinity index was observed in rice husk followed by rice straw and plantain pseudostem. These results provide scientific guidance of the potential of collected biomasses as promising candidates for bioenergy production and related industrial applications.

Single-step production of N-doped graphene powder from palm kernel shell at 500 °C

Single-step production of N-doped graphene powder from palm kernel shell at 500 °C

Polypropylene filled with activated carbon from palm kernel shells as antistatic packaging

Effect of activated carbon (AC) obtained from palm kernel shells on the electrical conductivity of polypropylene (PP) intended for antistatic packaging was investigated. AC (1–4 wt%) was introduced into PP by solution mixing. FT-IR analysis confirmed the absence of new functional groups, and SEM showed uniform distribution of the filler in the polymer matrix. Electrical conductivity increased with AC content (8.01 x 10⁻¹⁰ S/m for 4 wt% of AC), approaching the limit required for antistatic materials. In addition, tensile strength increased with simultaneous reduction of elongation and increase of crystallinity degree and thermal stability. At a higher AC content (4 wt%), agglomerate formation was observed, which slightly deteriorated mechanical and electrical properties. The results indicate that with an appropriately selected filler content, PP composites with AC additives can be a promising material for antistatic packaging.

Experimental Analysis for Improving the Energy Efficiency of Biomedical waste Co-Feeding in the Steam Gasification

The steam gasification of pure Biomedical waste (glucose plastic bottle, syringe) and Indian palm kernel shell is gasified in fluidized bed gasifier and the result is compared with the different mixture of PKS and BMW co-feeding(100%pks,25%bmw,50%bmw, and 100%bmw) using olivine as the primary catalyst. The influences of co-feeding of BMW with PKS on the gas yield, char yield, tar yield, carbon conversion efficiency, tar composition, and gas composition are investigated.

Effect of nano–palm kernel shell biochar on cure, swelling, and mechanical properties of natural rubber vulcanizates

The rapid growth in Malaysia’s oil palm industry has resulted in the increase in production of palm oil and oil palm waste such as palm kernel shell (PKS). However, the lack of awareness on the beneficial value of these wastes has led to sustainability issues. Thus, PKS can be converted into biochar (PKSB) and can be used as a potential bio-filler. The PKSB was produced in sizes ranging from micro to nano using a high energy ball mill (HEBM) to be used as a filler in natural rubber (NR) vulcanizates. This study evaluated the effects of varying n-PKSB loadings (0 to 10 phr) on the cure characteristics, bound rubber content (BRC), swelling, tensile, and abrasion properties of the NR vulcanizates. Results showed that n-PKSB-filled NR vulcanizates had lower minimum torque (ML) and cure rate index (CRI), along with improved BRC and crosslink density as the filler concentrations increased. The optimum loading ratio was 5 phr (F4), as this formulation offered the best mechanical properties and more homogenous dispersion of n-PKSB compared to other loadings. The overall performance of F4 showed high crosslink density (7.82 x 10-5 mol/cm3), BRC (3.94%), tensile strength (17 MPa), abrasion resistance (32.37%), and lower EB (451%). Overall, n-PKSB has great potential as bio-filler, addressing oil palm waste issues and benefiting the industry.

The Effect of Funnel Angle on Density, Hardness, and Calorific Value in Briquette Pressing Machine

Efforts to find new energy sources continue, including Renewable Energy Sources (RES). Biomass is an alternative source of renewable energy and one example of biomass is briquettes. Briquettes are solid fuels made from renewable organic materials derived from plants such as mangrove wood, coconut shells, and palm kernel shells. Thus, briquettes can serve as an alternative energy source to replace fossil fuels like coal. In this study, briquettes were produced using a briquette pressing machine with a screw conveyor method. The briquette materials used were palm kernel shell charcoal dan mangrove wood charcoal, with variations in funnel angles to observe the impact on briquette quality. The funnel angles tested were 55̊, 60̊ and 70̊. Three tests were conducted : density, hardness and Water Boiling Test (WBT),with five data points for each test. The best results were obtained for mangrove wood briquettes at a 55̊ funnel angle, with an average density of 1,12 grams/cm3, average hardness of 38,34 kg/cm2 and average WBT value of 5.785,02 kJ/kg. Funnel angle significantly influenced the quality of the produced briquette.

Grindability Features of Torrefied Biomass

Economic and legal conditions of the European power industry enforce higher participation of biomass in the thermal energy mix per power unit, due to the necessity of carbon dioxide emission reduction. One of the most important features dictating the suitability of biomass fuel for utilization in pulverized fuel-fired boilers is its grindability. The grindability of biomass is a difficult parameter to estimate due to its non-uniform morphology and inhomogeneous character. Milling and co-milling of large amounts of biomass can deteriorate the mill output and make it difficult to ensure the proper particle size distribution of the pulverized fuel fed into the combustion chamber. The main objective was to determine whether torrefaction pre-treatments could increase the grindability features of various types of biomass. Investigations of raw and torrefied biomass grindability were performed with the use of a modified Hardgrove Index for alder chips, palm kernel shells, and willow chips. Additionally, semi-industrial scale milling tests were performed, which allowed for the evaluation of torrefied biomass suitability for continuous grinding installations equipped with vertical spindle mills. According to the analysis, an increase in the biomass grindability index after the torrefaction process was shown. Additionally, it was noted that for milling low-density materials (e.g., torrefied biomass), changes in the construction of the industrial mill classifier may be necessary for the proper grinding circuit operation.

Optimizing local biomass composition for sustainable biomass power plants use PDCA, heat rate test, and cost benefit ratio method

Abstract Electric is an essential motion energy in modern human life to drive various activities. The importance of renewable energy that is popular today, makes biomass power plants an important alternative to replace fossil power plants. The study was conducted on a biomass power plant that previously uses palm kernels as part of biomass feed, lately there was 21% increase in its cost. The purpose of this study was to find local plantation waste as an alternative biomass feed to reduce the use of palm kernel shell in its biomass composition. The methods use was PDCA, plan-do-check-action, heat rate testing of several local plantation waste, and BCR, benefit cost ratio. The result shows, local biomass of rubber shell fuel and sugar cane bagasse could replace palm kernel shell fuel by 30,981 kg and 19,476.923 kg per month, respectively. Rubber shell fuel demonstrates a higher Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR) and expected value compared to sugar cane bagasse. Therefore, the loss of biomass powerplant that uses palm kernel shell could reversed into profit.

Structural Analysis of Palm Kernel Shell-Derived Biomass as a Carbon-Based Anode Material for Dual Carbon Battery

Abstract Palm kernel shell (PKS), a renewable biomass waste product of the palm oil industry, offers significant potential for use as a carbon-based anode material in dual carbon batteries (DCBs). This study investigates the structural properties of PKSC after several treatments by varying the temperature. The PKSC samples were analysed using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), and Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). SEM results showed a clear relationship between increased pyrolysis temperature and improved porosity. XRD analysis confirmed the dominance of amorphous carbon across all samples, with higher treatment temperatures leading to greater carbonization. FTIR analysis highlighted significant changes in the chemical structure of the samples. The enhanced porosity, high carbon content, and favourable functional group composition support ongoing efforts to develop eco-friendly, high-performance energy storage systems utilizing biomass-derived carbon materials.

Synthesizing palm kernel shell-based activated carbon for chloramphenicol removal via a single-step microwave heating

Abstract Chloramphenicol (CP) antibiotic in water can lead to environmental contamination and pose health risks to aquatic life and humans due to its antibiotic properties and potential to induce resistance. Thus, the objective of this research is to treat CP in water with the aid of activated carbon synthesized from palm kernel shell (PKSAC). The synthesis of PKSAC was performed via a single-step microwave heating technique. In equilibrium study, the adsorption uptakes of CP by PKSAC rose from 2.88 to 11.79 mg/g, when starting concentration of CP was elevated (5 to 30 mg/L). The best model describing the CP-PKSAC adsorption system was Langmuir model. The optimal coverage in monolayer mode, Qm was computed to 18.95 mg/g. For kinetic study, pseudo-second order (PSO) described the adsorption process studied the best. Boyd plot analysis confirmed that film diffusion was the rate-limiting mechanism in the CP adsorption by PKSAC. This indicates that the rate of adsorption is primarily governed by the resistance to mass transfer across the boundary layer surrounding the PKSAC particles. Identifying the slowest step in the adsorption process is crucial, as it allows for targeted optimizations to enhance the overall efficiency of the system.

Corrigendum to “Biosorption of aqueous Pb(II) by H3PO4-activated biochar prepared from palm kernel shells (PKS)” [Heliyon Volume 9, Issue 7, July 2023, Article e17250

Corrigendum to “Biosorption of aqueous Pb(II) by H3PO4-activated biochar prepared from palm kernel shells (PKS)” [Heliyon Volume 9, Issue 7, July 2023, Article e17250

Preparation and characterization of Palm Kernel Shell (PKS) based biocatalyst for the transformation of kernel oil to biodiesel

Preparation and characterization of Palm Kernel Shell (PKS) based biocatalyst for the transformation of kernel oil to biodiesel

99mTc radiolabeling of palm shell charcoal: A preliminary study for potential lung ventilation scintigraphy agent.

99mTc radiolabeling of palm shell charcoal: A preliminary study for potential lung ventilation scintigraphy agent.

Thermal, thermo-oxidative, and catalytic degradation of palm kernel shells using a continuous two-stage pyrolysis process for the production of phenols-rich bio-oil

Thermal, thermo-oxidative, and catalytic degradation of palm kernel shells using a continuous two-stage pyrolysis process for the production of phenols-rich bio-oil

Hydrothermal sulfonation of palm kernel shells to produce a carbon-based solid acid catalyst for the glycerol etherification

Hydrothermal sulfonation of palm kernel shells to produce a carbon-based solid acid catalyst for the glycerol etherification

Isothermal Reduction and Nitridation Kinetics of Ilmenite Using Non-carbonized Palm Kernel Shell Biomass

Isothermal Reduction and Nitridation Kinetics of Ilmenite Using Non-carbonized Palm Kernel Shell Biomass

Thermodynamic Assessment of Phase Transformation during Carbothermic Ilmenite Using Non-Carbonization Palm Kernel Shell Biomass

Abstract Based on the thermodynamic assessment, this study aims to investigate the reduction behavior of carbothermic ilmenite using Non-Carbonization Palm Kernel Shell biomass (PKS-B). Phase transformation, equilibrium phases, and spontaneity reactions during reduction were systematically evaluated. The effect of PKS-B addition in metallic iron and TiO2-rutile formation temperature are investigated, respectively. Based on thermodynamic results, ilmenite was dissociated indirectly by volatile matter of biomass to FeO and TiO2 at 400°C to 600°C. Subsequently, biomass carbon took the reduction directly to Fe above 600°C. The metallization degree of Fe was almost close to 100% at 1200°C and 1000°C when adding half and one-time mol ratio of the stoichiometry of PKS-B. In addition, the Fe phase was consistent with the reduction of TiO2 to form Ti-suboxides such as Ti3O5 and Ti2O3 provided by adding PKS-B above half along with reduction temperature above 1100°C. The formation of TiN from Ti-suboxides was more spontaneous than via TiO2 due to the presence of N2 as confirmed by Gibbs free energy change. Thus, the ilmenite reduction pathway using PKS-B was dissociation and reduction first, then continued by the nitridation process. Furthermore, the nitriding competes with the reduction process, where Fe nitrides are formed at low temperatures while Ti nitrides and metallic Fe are formed at high temperatures.

Enhancing POME final discharge treatment efficiency using oil palm kernel shell activated carbon: A pilot and field-scale study

Enhancing POME final discharge treatment efficiency using oil palm kernel shell activated carbon: A pilot and field-scale study

Progressive Conversion Model Applied to the Physical Activation of Activated Carbon from Palm Kernel Shells at the Pilot Scale in a Nichols Furnace and at the Industrial Scale in a Rotary Kiln.

Palm kernel shells, an abundant agro-industrial residue in countries like Ecuador, can be valorized through their conversion into activated carbon for industrial applications. This study investigates the physical activation of carbonized palm kernel shells using both a Nichols furnace at the pilot scale and a rotary kiln at the industrial scale. The progressive conversion model was used to explain how the activation process works and to calculate the reaction rate constants for CO2 (krCO2) and H2O (krH2O). The experimental results demonstrated that activation in an H2O-rich atmosphere significantly enhanced porosity development and iodine index compared to CO2 alone. Additionally, the study confirmed that activation kinetics are primarily controlled by the chemical reaction rather than mass transport limitations, as indicated by the negligible effect of particle size on gasification rates. At 850 °C, the reaction rate constants were calculated to be krCO2 = 0.75 (mol·cm-3·s)-1 and krH2O = 8.91 (mol·cm-3·s)-1. The model's predictions closely matched the experimental data, validating its applicability for process optimization at both the pilot and industrial scales. These findings provide valuable insights for improving the efficiency of activated carbon production from palm kernel shells in large-scale operations.