Outbreak Of World War Research Articles

Advertising, Piano Culture, and the Changing Middle Class in Urban Galicia, 1911–1921

Abstract In the years between the turn of the century and the outbreak of World War I, business directories listed four commercial piano storefronts in Kraków and an even more impressive nine in Lwów, though the actual number was even higher. Additionally, each of the cities boasted multiple local piano factories. The presence of these factories and storefronts indicates an established market for the buying and selling of pianos in the two major urban centers of Austrian Galicia in the years prior to the war. While piano advertising continued both during and after the war, this was not necessarily an indicator of a lack of change. The instability and increasing inflation of the period served as a catalyst, forcing some owners to sell their pianos, while other citizens may have had the opportunity to capitalize on the economic situation, buying these status symbols for their households. The persistence of private piano classified advertisements for those hoping to buy and sell pianos throughout the war years was a symptom of social and cultural change within the middle class in urban Galicia. This article situates the dynamics of the region’s persistent piano marketplace alongside contemporary socio-political and economic trends to highlight an important indicator of social mobility amidst the widespread impact of World War I.

Dotychczasowe badania nad religijnością polskich chłopów w okresie pouwłaszczeniowym (1864–1914)

Previous research on the religiousness of Polish peasants in the post-enfranchisement period (1864–1914) The purpose of the article is to signal the most important trends in the previous research on the religiosity of Polish peasants in the second half of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century (more specifically, in the period between the initiation of the main of the agrarian reforms in the Kingdom of Poland – enfranchisement – and the outbreak of World War I). Discussed are both contemporary texts of the phenomenon under study, from the field of pastoral theology or early works of ethnography / folklore studies, but also the later perspective of researchers from the social sciences (sociology and cultural anthropology) and historians. The presence of religious themes in the latest publications from the circle of the so-called a people’s history of Poland [ludowa historia Polski] is also briefly indicated. The text attempts not only to point out some important research works published to date, but also seeks to highlight their strengths and weaknesses. In addition to a review of the literature and a commentary on it, the article, in its final section, also includes suggestions and hints for further research on the subject of the religious life of peasants – both research gaps worth filling, as well as source and methodological suggestions.

Russian film censorship in 1898–1914

The article examines the origin and development of film censorship in Russia since the advent of cinema in the country and before the outbreak of the First World War. The first restrictions were imposed on the court chronicle. Since the mid-1900s, with the development of feature films and the rapid expansion of the cinema network, the issue of introducing film censorship was increasingly raised. Some steps in this direction have been taken, but mainly at the level of local authorities. As a result, by 1914 film censorship remained decentralized, and decisions on the rental of a particular film were usually made by police officers and local administration officials. A feature of film censorship in the period under study was the significant influence of "grassroots" initiatives: various committees, assemblies, political forces and moral zealots demanded that the state tighten control over the rental in order to protect children and the whole society from the "corrupting" influence of cinema. However, before the outbreak of the World War and the revolution, the government did not take practical steps to centralize film censorship.

Press coverage of the Zabern affair (1913–1914) in Prussian partition and in Upper Silesia

The article analyzes the coverage of the Zabern affair (1913–1914) in selected Polish newspapers published in Prussian partition and in Upper Silesia. The affair was a crisis of domestic policy in the German Empire shortly before the outbreak of World War I. The portrayal of the events and the main protagonists of the Zabern affair, including Emperor Wilhelm II, in Polish press was also examined. The article discusses the parallels between the published accounts of the Zabern affair and the fate of Poles living in Prussian partition. Attempts were also made to identify cultural factors and stereotypes that could have influenced the tone of press articles.

Czułe membrany. Przekodowania terminologiczne jako problem translatorski

The purpose of this article is to present the use of Juri Lotman’s semiotic tools to reflect on the process of translating scientific texts. The article focuses on a text of a special type – an ethnographic material by Eugeniusz Frankowski (1884–1962), a Polish ethnologist of the interwar period. The outbreak of World War I found him in Spain – during his time, he wrote several texts in Spanish, Portuguese and Basque, including the work La lucha entre el hombre y los espíritus malos por la posesión de la tierra y su usufructo (translated by the author into Polish as “Zmagania człowieka ze złymi duchami o posiadanie ziemi i jej użytkowanie”). Research fluctuations (both terminological and methodological) are evident in the very “texture” of the text, so translating La lucha… into Polish required sensitivity to the mechanisms occurring at the confluence of biographical and textual levels. Using semiotic tools, the author reveals a series of research, textual, and methodological uncertainties for the researcher, resulting from the need to use different scientific languages (Polish, Spanish, French, German, etc.) to describe the newly explored terrain. This is because the awareness of the existence of these uncertainties sensitizes the very work of the translator, who is both an archaeologist, fleshing out successive levels of meaning, and a creator, co-thinking with Lotman’s notion of text as a “generator of meanings”.

Waiting To Be Reunited?

Abstract the young Polish anthropologist Stanisław Poniatowski undertook fieldwork in the Russian Far East in summer 1914. He collected almost five hundred various artifacts (objects, photographs, anthropometric measurement forms, etc.) and linguistic material from the local Nanai and Udege communities along the Amur River. The outbreak of World War I changed Poniatowski's plans and caused the separation (fragmentation) of his original collections, now housed at the Polish Ethnological Society in Wrocław, Poland and at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC in the US. The article describes a new multistep effort to digitally “reunite” Poniatowski's collections and convert them into a cultural resource for researchers, museum specialists, and Indigenous communities for heritage and language preservation.

The Role of Family Networks in Holocaust Rescue, 1933–1941: The Case of Australia

The article analyses the role family networks in Australia played in Holocaust rescue before and shortly after the outbreak of World War 2. Working with sources from the official archives as well as private documents, I argue that the networks enabled hundreds of Jewish migrants and refugees to escape Europe. Furthermore, they facilitated the arrival of migrants, who otherwise would most likely have been rejected as unsuitable applicants by the Australian government. First, the article analyses the Australian immigration laws before 1941, focusing predominantly on the sponsorship pathway, which allowed Australian residents to apply for the admission of their relatives and friends. In the following parts, the article uses case studies of individual migrants and their families to demonstrate the possibilities but also limitations of the sponsorship program. It concludes that despite the limitations, family networks need to be recognised for their contribution to Holocaust rescue, and this applies also to the case study of Australia, which otherwise was for a long time not considered an ideal destination by Jewish refugees.

The early international physiological congresses (1889–1913) as a new form of communication between physiologists

The article reviews the opportunities for scientific communication, provided by the early international physiological congresses and also touches on the history of their organization and conduct. The advancement of physiological science in the 19th century necessitated a new form of communication between physiologists that could promote both the dissemination of achievements in this field and the integration of physiologists from different nations. International physiological congresses the first of which was held in Basel (Switzerland) in 1889 provided a platform for such interaction. Eight more international physiological congresses were held before the outbreak of World War I, the last pre-war congress being held in 1913 in Groningen (the Netherlands). The source base for this study includes articles in the Russian and international periodicals published in the 1880s – 1910s, the researchers’ works reflecting the main events of the congresses as well as their scientific and cultural programs, and the participants’ reminiscences of the first physiological congresses that appeared in the periodicals later on. It is shown that the early international physiological congresses provided their participants an opportunity and a platform for communication within the framework of the events planned by the organizers. It is established that Russian scientists took part in all of the international physiological congresses that took place before World War I. It is concluded that the first international physiological congresses became an effective platform for exchanging knowledge and experiences and establishing scientific links, which enhanced the advancement of physiology as a science.

Montenegrins in the Ottoman Empire as ‘Enemy Aliens’ during World War I (1914–1918)

With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the Ottoman Empire and Montenegro, which no longer shared a border due to the shifted territories following the Balkan Wars (1912–13), faced each other as belligerents in two different coalitions (the Entente and the Central powers). Throughout this process, Montenegrin citizens, both Muslim and non-Muslim, living in the Ottoman territories and working in various fields, suddenly found themselves as enemy subjects. This article analyses what it was like for Montenegrins living in the Ottoman territory during the war by assessing their legal status, naturalisation, internment and the security measures taken against them. In the light of Ottoman archival documents and within the framework of the concept of enemy aliens, this article examines just how the war affected these forgotten citizens of Montenegro – who have long been overlooked and overshadowed in scholarly works by the subjects of the Great Powers – and how the Ottoman administration treated them in the context of state security.

Behuisingskemas vir gekleurdes in Pretoria 1900-1924

During the Republican period Coloured people in Pretoria had to provide their own housing. This situation was perpetuated under British rule owing to factors such as insufficient funds, lax municipal administration, and the temporary nature of the governmental system. Housing conditions for Coloured people were indeed very poor until 1910 despite some effort by the City Council and other organisations to bring about improvement. From 1912 the construction of barracks, hostels, model homes, and municipal houses was undertaken and received special attention. The efforts of the local government were not successful, however, and once again the Coloured people had to provide their own housing. With the outbreak of World War I the housing shortage increased since a growing number of Blacks moved from rural areas to Pretoria. Overcrowding and subletting were rife, and the high mortality among Coloured people during the 1918 influenza epidemic was a result of the poor housing facilities in Pretoria. After the War the Coloured people once again approached the City Council for assistance to build houses; meanwhile the housing standards in Marabastad were once more criticised. A new scheme was introduced. whereby houses were to be erected with loans negotiated by the City Council but the necessary capital for such a scheme was not available. This "model scheme" was consequently carried out on a reduced scale by the Council and in the course of 1922 only some 260 two- and three-bedroomed houses were built. Insufficient influx control at this stage gave rise to an even bigger housing shortage and the Council's efforts to accommodate Coloured people in hostels and compounds only partially alleviated the situation. After two decades – during which several housing schemes were tried – the City Council of Pretoria still could not boast of having successfully solved the chronic housing shortage for Coloureds in the area under its jurisdiction.

Selected examples of Muslim loyalism in the Balkans toward Christian states: The case of Bosnia‐Herzegovina and Bulgaria 1878–1914

AbstractThe purpose of this article is to characterize the loyalist attitudes of Muslims in Bulgaria and Bosnia‐Herzegovina (then part of Austria‐Hungary) in the period between the Congress of Berlin and the outbreak of World War I, with particular focus on the issue of differences between the religious beliefs of these communities and the ruling religion of their respective states. The analysis was carried out based on selected examples using the case study method (attitudes toward armed resistance, military service, and the formation of elites in support of the state), and is preceded by a profile of the approach of the authorities in Bulgaria and Bosnia‐Herzegovina toward their Muslim subjects. By comparing the state‐citizen and citizen‐state attitudes, the article addresses the question concerning the degree of communal loyalty to the Christian authorities and – based on the comparative method – outlines the primary differences between the two.

THE POLITICAL AND INTELLECTUAL HISTORY OF NAJAF AL-ASHRAF (1909-1925 AD(

The first section dealt with: Najaf Al-Ashraf’s position on the British invasion The city of Najaf was known for its many national stances rejecting the occupation, whether it was Ottoman or British. These positions began to appear directly at the beginning of the twentieth century after British forces began to occupy Iraq, following the outbreak of World War I (1914 AD), which coincided with the collapse of the Ottoman Empire militarily and administratively. The Ottomans’ interest was also primarily focused on convincing the Shiites to declare a fatwa for jihad. Their first step was to send a high-level delegation to the city of Najaf commensurate with the size of the mission entrusted to them. It included a number of Baghdadi and government figures and clerics, including Muhammad Fadil al-Daghistani, Shawkat Pasha, and Sheikh Hamid al-Kulaidar (custodian of the sanctuary of the two Imams al-Kazimin). An extensive meeting was held in one of the mosques, attended by scholars, leaders, sheikhs of the Middle Euphrates tribes, and clerics, including Sayyed Muhammad Saeed Al-Haboubi, Sheikh Abdul Karim Al-Jazairi, and Sheikh Jawad - the owner of Al-Jawahir - who stressed the necessity of standing with the Muslim government (meaning the Ottoman government) to push the infidels from their lands. Muslims, as some tribal sheikhs spoke, including Mubarak Al Pharaoh (Sheikh of Al Fatla), who said: (The Turks are our brothers in religion, and it is our duty to help them expel the enemies from our country). Accordingly, the religious scholars in Najaf issued a fatwa stating the necessity of defending Islam and its homeland. The religious scholars in Najaf declared jihad, and the duty to defend Islamic countries. The jihadist calls against the British continued, and the most famous of these calls was the one that carried the slogan “The Noble Haidari Flag,” which began in November 1915. The most

التحركات البريطانية الاستباقية لكبح الخطر العثماني في اليمن ابان اندلاع الحرب العالمية الاولى

#يهتم هذا البحث بدراسة التحركات العسكرية والاقتصادية والسياسية والدبلوماسية البريطانية الاستباقية لكبح الخطر العثماني في ولاية اليمن فور إعلان الدولة العثمانية دخولها الحرب العالمية الأولى إلى جانب دول المحور ضد دول الحلفاء؛ إذ إن الانجليز أدركوا مدى أهمية الموقع الاستراتيجي لليمن بإشرافه على مضيق باب المندب الذي يعد من أكثر مناطق التنافس بين الدول الاستعمارية، وما يمثله تمركز القوات العثمانية في اليمن على مجرى الحرب ومصالح دول الحلفاء في الشرق. ونظر لتلك الأهمية سارعت بريطانيا بتحركات استباقية هدفت إلى إفشال أي استعدادات أو مخططات عثمانية - ألمانية لاستخدام الساحة اليمنية منطلقا لتغيير مسار الحرب، فقامت بريطانيا خلال السبعة الأشهر الأولى لاندلاع الحرب بأربع خطوات، واستخدمت في كل خطوة عدة تحركات حتى تمكنت من حصار الحامية العثمانية داخل اليمن. وقد قسم البحث إلى مدخل وأربعة مباحث وخاتمة، وأفرد لكل خطوة مبحث. المبحث الأول بعنوان تحركات البحرية البريطانية ضد العثمانيين في اليمن، لتأمين الملاحة وخطوط الإمداد، وردود أفعال اليمنيين من العمليات البحرية خلال شهر نوفمبر وديسمبر 1914 م . أما المبحث الثاني فعنوانه تحركات البحرية البريطانية لفرض حصار اقتصادي وتجاري على اليمن، والعمل دبلوماسيا على جذب القوى المحلية لتحريضها على العثمانيين أثناء اندلاع الحرب. وجاء المبحث الثالث تحت عنوان التحركات السياسية والدبلوماسية البريطانية ونجاحها في عقد تحالفات مع قوى يمنية للقيام بالتمرد على العثمانيين. أما المبحث الرابع والأخير فهو بعنوان الاحتلال البريطاني للجزر اليمنية في البحر الأحمر وقصف موانئ تهامة لدعم الإدريسي لفرض حصار بري على العثمانيين داخل اليمن. وخلص البحث إلى خاتمة بمجموعة نتائج عن مدى نجاح خطوات التحركات البريطانية الاستباقية تلك حتى أصبحت أساسا فرضت به حصاراً بحريا وبريا على القوات العثمانية داخل اليمن إلى حد إعاقة دعم الحامية ماليا وعسكريا ، وإضعاف اتصالها بالعاصمة العثمانية، كما أدت التحركات إلى كبح الخطر العثماني على مصالح الحلفاء في الشرق، وخلقت حالة من عدم الاستقرار داخل اليمن والمنطقة، استمرت أكثر من ثلاث سنوات حتى نهاية الحرب ؛ رغم تفوق العثمانيين في البر.

An Introduction and Recent Advances in the Analytical Study of Early Synthetic Dyes and Organic Pigments in Cultural Heritage

This article reviews the research recently undertaken to characterise and identify early synthetic dyes (ESDs) and synthetic organic pigments (SOPs) as well as study their degradation pathways with a focus on cultural heritage applications. Since the invention of the first fully synthetic dye in 1856, these materials have been used in a variety of historic objects and artworks, such as textiles, furniture, prints, paintings, drawings, etc. The synthesis of new dyes and their implementation into pigment formulations were rapid phenomena, so that by the beginning of the 20th century, thousands of new molecules were patented and commercialised. This review will focus on these early formulations synthesised up to approximately 1914 and the outbreak of World War I. ESDs and SOPs represent a challenge from an analytical point of view. Molecular databases are fundamental for the unequivocal identification of these compounds, but reference materials are not always readily available. A combination of analytical techniques is often needed for characterisation, especially in the case of SOPs, which have both organic and inorganic components. Furthermore, the degradation of these molecules can jeopardise their detection in historic objects that have been exposed to light, humidity and temperature fluctuations. Nevertheless, ESDs and SOPs are important research tools. As the dates of their first synthesis are often known with precision, based on patent information, their detection can be used to refine the production date of objects. Additionally, their trade from Europe to the world and their adoption in artistic practices around the globe is an active area of research.

Chronotopische Landschaften in den fantastischen Romanen Raphaela Edelbauers

The works of Raphaela Edelbauer share a common theme in terms of the surrealistic landscapes in which they are set. Her historical novel Die Inkommensurablen (2023) features a village referred to as Weiler, which can seemingly be visited by multiple characters in their dreams. This dreamscape is not only a fantastic element in an otherwise realistic novel, but also an allegory of the shared belligerence within the Austrian society just before the outbreak of World War I. Similarly, the surreal setting of her contemporary novel Das flüssige Land (2019) functions as an allegory as well. The ground beneath the town of Groß-Einland is hollowed out, threatening its very existence, just as the shared guilt of the population’s crimes under the Nazi regime still lingers beneath the idyllic surface. Finally, her science fiction novel DAVE (2021) departs from the established pattern in that its setting is not the manifestation of a shared sentiment, but rather the mind of the eponymous artificial intelligence that narrates the story. In all these cases, however, the landscape is used to transform a subjective and abstract experience into a physical space.

"Покарання для людей, які пройшли своє чесне життя без жодної плями": євреї-заручники під час Першої світової війни в Російській імперії

Introduction. With the outbreak of World War I, the Jewish population of the Russian Empire demonstrated its loyalty to the state in various ways, which drew approval even from representatives of those political circles among whom anti-Semitic views were widespread. However, after the first defeats at the front, the High Command began to look for those responsible for the wartime defeats and troubles. Jews in particular were identified as such internal enemies. Due to the potential danger from their possible actions, it became common to take hostages from among representatives of Jewish communities. The purpose of the article is to study the practice of taking hostages among the Jewish population of the Russian Empire and the territories occupied by tsarist troops during World War I. The results of the study of this issue will contribute to a better understanding of the social and political processes that took place in the Russian Empire during World War I and will be important for studying the causes of the outbreak of anti-Jewish violence in Ukraine in 1918-1921. Methods. The study is based on the principles of historicism and objectivity. A set of general scientific and special historical methods was used: methods of synthesis, induction, and analysis, as well as historical-genetic and historical-typological methods. Results. Hostage-taking among representatives of Jewish communities began in 1914, but only in 1915 it became an officially approved practice. Wealthy and respected community members were chosen as hostages and held in prisons or private quarters under strict supervision. They were to be responsible for the behavior of the Jews of their community and were to be executed if they were found to be spying or otherwise working for the enemy of one of their fellow Jews. Conclusions. Three main areas have been identified where hostage-taking was used to ensure the loyalty of Jews to Russian troops: Galicia, some governorates of the Kingdom of Poland, and some of the Baltic governorates of the empire. Jewish hostages from Galicia were sent to the "internal" governorates of the Russian Empire, as were most hostages from the Kingdom of Poland. In the Baltic states, however, this practice was not widespread because deportations were preferred to hostage-taking. Accordingly, there were almost no deportations of Jews with this status to the "internal" governorates. From August 1915, hostage-taking became a decentralized measure, remaining, however, until the February Revolution of 1917. The practice of hostage-taking caused considerable resistance and discontent among Jews, and contributed to the deepening of anti-Semitic sentiment among the Christian population of the Russian Empire.

Доклад генерал-майора Д. П. Струкова о постановке военной цензуры в Петрограде и Петроградском военном округе. 1915 г.

The article publishes the report of the chairman of the Petrograd Military Censorship Commission, General D. P. Strukov, to the Chief of the Petrograd Military District on the organization of military censorship in the capital (July 9, 1915). By this time military censorship in Petrograd was a complex and multilevel structure, covering not only the press and correspondence, but also theater, cinema, public speeches and reports. Under the "Provisional Regulations on Military Censorship," adopted with the outbreak of World War I, censors had broad powers and could ban virtually any printed material, stop the forwarding of any correspondence, and prohibit any speech or theatrical production. However, this did not avoid numerous mistakes and contradictory decisions when censoring newspapers and magazines. It was not uncommon for one censor to authorize an article for publication and another to prohibit it. Significant difficulties also arose in the censorship of postal and telegraphic correspondence. Due to the widespread and chronic shortage of qualified personnel, postal and telegraph offices and post offices did not have time to review thousands of letters and telegrams, both internal and external. The "backlogs" of correspondence that had already formed in the first month of the war attracted the attention of the command and the censorship leadership. Meetings were held, censors were transferred to the "problem" areas, but the problem was solved slowly, and the "backlogs" generally increased. Letters and telegrams were delayed for months and often did not reach their addressees, which caused great irritation in the society and in the army. Representatives of the censorship called for a multiple increase in the funding of censorship offices and increase in the staff to solve the problem of "deposits" and complete control of internal and external correspondence. The supporter of such a campaign was General Strukov, who proposed in his report of July 9, 1915, to increase the number of censors by 450 people, to raise their salaries, and to establish a full review of all letters and telegrams. In addition, Strukov proposed to change the structure of military censorship in the capital: to subordinate all military censorship commissions of the Petrograd Military District to a single head, subordinate in his turn to the commander of the VI Army. With the help of such "unity of command" the General intended to eliminate the problem of contradictory decisions, unnecessary correspondence and conflicts between departments. Strukov's proposals were realized only partially: in 1915-1916 the number of censors was practically doubled, the maintenance of military censorship venues was improved. However, the problems of censorship - inconsistency, unjustified rigidity, selectivity and constant delay of correspondence - remained for the whole period of the First World War.

F. Schmourlo (1854–1934) – Scientific Correspondent of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Rome (1903–1924): Non-accomplished Project. Part II

The efforts undertaken in 1895 to organize a permanent mission of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Rome culminated in the establishment in 1903 of the position of scientific correspondent, to which Professor of Russian History at Yuryev University E. F. Schmourlo (1854–1934) was elected. His task was to identify as fully as possible the materials of Roman, Italian and European archives and libraries on Russian history. The collected documents were supposed to be published in a series of thematic collections and collection of materials. In the first series, an incomplete collection of documents for 1578–1581 was published, and in the second, four volumes of thematic publications (three of them in two issues). The scientific correspondent formed a large special library, which was intended to serve his needs and the needs of those Russian researchers who would come to conduct their research in Rome. To facilitate future archival work, he was also entrusted with the compilation of a paleographic collection. Thanks to persistence and some additional efforts, the scientific correspondent received permission to work in the Archives of the Congregation for the Propaganda of the Faith, closed to a wide circle of researchers, and collected many new materials there. Unfortunately, the broadly conceived scientific undertaking could not be fully realized. A Russian institute like those national scientific institutions that appeared there at the end of the 19th century after the opening of the Vatican Archives to researchers was not created in Rome. E. F. Schmourlo proposed a project for such an Institute to the Academy of Sciences in 1917. In connection with the outbreak of World War I, the activities of the scientific correspondent changed significantly – in 1915–1916 he was assigned to oversee the protection of “historical monuments and scientific collections in the area of military operations”. Then in 1918–1919, after the “October Revolution” in Russia, he actively joined the work of the anti-Bolshevik organization “Union for the Revival of Russia in Unity with the Allies” for some time. Having found himself a forced emigrant and having practically lost contact with the Academy of Sciences, he continued to fulfill his duties and conduct scientific research as much as possible. At the end of 1924, it became clear that this work was already difficult to do in Rome, especially since in December 1924 the Academy of Sciences decided to abolish the position of scientific correspondent. Having received its consent to transfer the library of the scientific correspondent in Rome to the Institute of Eastern Europe (Istituto per l’Europa Orientale) for temporary use for 10 years, having sold his personal library and received a pension from the Czechoslovak government, E. F. Schmourlo moved to Prague at the end of 1924, where he headed the Russian Historical Society, which he had organized in 1925. In 1935, his archive was transferred to the RZIA in Prague, from where it was transported to Moscow in 1945 (currently – GARF).

„Ławą przepływać lubimy do sezonowych letnisk” – wędrówki Polaków do pruskich i niemieckich kurortów (1850–1914)

This study examines written sources documenting Polish travels to German resorts from the the mid-19th century until the outbreak of World War I. The topic at hand encompasses multiple disciplines, including literary history and cultural anthropology. Among the resorts popular among Poles in the 19th century, Baden-Baden emerges as the most prominent German spa town which attracted the then elite of Europe. It gained its reputation due to the beneficial climate and hot springs as well as a diverse array of recreational activities. As the political situation deteriorated (the Kulturkampf, Prussian restrictions), Polish trips to German resorts came to be viewed in a political context. As a result, a campaign for boycotting „the baths” was launched in the Polish press. Written sources documenting Polish travels to German and Prussian resorts from the 19th and early 20th centuries provide insight into the historical context of the period, and offer a unique perspective on various political, economic, and social issues.

Disenchantment: Liang Qichao's Post-War European Travel and Ideological Shift

Since the modern era, Western culture has acquired modern attributes due to its early industrialization. The political and economic systems of capitalism, and even its values, have become the aspirations of modern China. As a representative of the intellectual group learning from the West, Liang Qichao once regarded the Western capitalist society as the direction for China's modernization. However, the outbreak of World War I changed Liang Qichao. The various contradictions in post-war Europe and the perverse actions of imperialism led Liang Qichao to deeply reflect on Western civilization. He no longer looked up to the West but instead re-examined the valuable values of Chinese civilization, establishing cultural confidence. In fact, the shift in Liang Qichao's thinking is not an isolated case but a microcosm of the cultural awakening of the entire group of Chinese intellectuals learning from the West.