Ottoman Elite Research Articles

Bedouins, blacks, and the bringers of Islam: the Arabs in late Ottoman encyclopaedic literature, 1876–1928

ABSTRACT Late Ottoman Turkish perceptions of the Arabs emerged within an intellectual climate that emphasized Western-defined notions of progress and ‘civilization’ as a hegemonic ideal. As previous works have emphasized, these intellectual premises often led the late Ottoman elites to view the empire’s Arab population through the lens of an Ottoman Orientalism, which cast them into the position of an ‘uncivilized Other’ and foregrounded the need of an Ottoman civilizing effort towards them. This article studies late Ottoman encyclopaedic literature, a genre displaying the intellectual spirit of its time, and analyses portrayals of the Arabs and Arabness found therein. After briefly engaging with the question of how collective designators used for the Arabs transformed over the decades from an unspecific to a more ethnicized terminology, the article finds that perceptions of the Arabs and Arabness in late Ottoman encyclopaedic literature reflect the merging of different knowledge traditions current in the late Ottoman era. Consequently, a more multifaceted picture emerges, as portrayals vary between venerating references to the Arabs as a noble and ancient people who should be credited as the bringers of Islam, the Arabs as negatively racialized blacks, and approaches informed by the findings of Western scientific racism.

Expertise and Sedition: Perspectives from the Ottoman Army of 1769

This paper examines the letters of the Ottoman Grand Vizier and commander-in-chief of the 1769 campaign, Yağlıkçızâde Mehmed Emin Pasha, in order to advance the understanding of Ottoman notions of expertise. Military expertise has always been seen as a fundamental part of discussions of Ottoman modernization, and its perceived absence prior to the Ottoman-Russian War of 1768–1774 is cited as one of the many reasons why the Ottomans ‘lagged’ behind. This article attempts to understand what constituted expertise for the Ottoman elite before the major catastrophes of the war and puts forward an intertwining relationship between perceptions of expertise and sedition.

THE EMPIRE, SUNNI ISLAM, AND QIZILBASH ISLAM IN CELÂLZÂDE MUSTAFA’S HISTORICAL WRITINGS

The intricate interplay between religion, state, and historiography in the Ottoman Empire during the first half of the sixteenth century—a period marked by the Empire’s transformation from a medieval state to an early modern power—was significantly shaped by the emergence of the Qizilbash challenge circa 1500. The comparable leadership claims of the Ottoman and Safavid dynasties, coupled with the Safavids’ capacity to attract Ottoman Muslims, explain the urgency and strictness of the measures taken by the Ottoman dynasty and its elites. This context also highlights why Ottoman intellectuals, devoted to upholding the political and cultural integrity of the state, made the Ottoman-Safavid conflict a central theme in their historical narratives. Within the diverse spectrum of Ottoman thought on Sunni and Qizilbash Islam and responses to the Safavid challenge, Celâlzâde Mustafa stands out as a crucial voice, whose distinguished and impactful tenure as chancellor earned him the title “the Great Chancellor.” His works offer valuable insights into these complex dynamics and are essential for understanding the full picture of Ottoman responses to the period’s religious and political challenges. This article, through an in-depth analysis of Tabakat and Selimname, presents Celâlzâde as an exemplar of the Ottoman elite and explores (i) his interpretation of Sunni Muslim identity, (ii) his portrayal of Qizilbash Muslims, and (iii) his strategies for reinforcing Ottoman legitimacy against the Qizilbash Safavid threat.

Intellectual Figures in Post-Tanzimat Social Change: The Example of Ahmet Cevdet Pasha and His Granddaughter Sister Zubeyde Ismet

The Tanzimat Period refers to the era spanning from the proclamation of the Gülhane Hatt-ı Hümayun on November 3, 1839, to 1876. Initiated in 1839 under the leadership of Reshid Pasha, the Tanzimat Period concluded in 1876 with the transition to a constitutional regime led by Midhat Pasha. Etymologically, Tanzimat denotes a comprehensive restructuring and transformation of the Ottoman administrative, political, social, and economic life. Ahmed Cevdet Pasha, a prominent figure of the 19th-century Ottoman Empire, made substantial contributions to the realms of administration, politics, culture, and scholarship. This study aims to examine Ahmed Cevdet Pasha, his family life, and the transformation of his granddaughter, Sister Zubeyde İsmet, within the context of the modernization process influenced by the Tanzimat period. The research employs a qualitative research method, specifically document analysis. The Ottoman Empire, having fallen behind the West in numerous areas, particularly in the military, sought to emulate the West, perceived as more advanced. This emulation extended beyond the military realm. With the Tanzimat reforms, Ottoman elites, including statesmen and intellectuals, sent their children to Western missionary schools. These Ottoman offspring were culturally assimilated and indoctrinated to serve the interests of Western Christianization. Consequently, this process of emulation evolved into cultural imperialism. As a result of this cultural imperialism, the granddaughter of Ahmet Cevdet Pasha converted to Christianity and became a nun. Zubeyde İsmet's transformation highlights the significance of the education system; regardless of an individual's adherence to their own religion, culture, and family, the educational system of the state and society in which they live will determine the fate of their generation.

19. Yüzyıl Avrupa Diplomasisi içinde Oryantal Yer Arayışlar: Sultan Abdülaziz’in 1867 Avrupa Gezisine Bir Bakış

Sultan Abdülaziz’in 21 Haziran-7 Ağustos 1867 tarihlerinde geniş bir heyet ile gerçekleştirdiği Avrupa gezisi Osmanlı diplomasisi için önemli bir dönüm noktasıdır. Zira bu ziyaret bir Osmanlı Sultanının ilk Avrupa gezisidir ve Osmanlı seçkinlerine devletlerinin Avrupa’da nasıl algılandığı konusunda ilk elden bilgi sağlamıştır. Aynı zamanda bu gezide Sultan Abdülaziz ve yanındakiler Avrupa’nın güçlü devletleri ile kendi gelişmişlikleri arasında 19. yüzyılın sonundaki büyük farkı yerinde gözlemlemişlerdir. Bu ziyaret 1854-1856 Kırım Savaşı ile 1876-1878 yıllarındaki 93 Harbi arasındaki dönemin tam ortasında Girit İsyanı’nın en zor zamanlarında gerçekleşmiştir. Osmanlı bürokrasisi 1815 Viyana Kongresi sonrası kurulan Avrupa düzeninde kendilerine Düvel-i Muazzama içinde yer aramaktaydılar. Bu minvalde Avrupa gezisinin ilk amacı Osmanlı’nın ancak 1856 Paris Antlaşması ile kabul ettirebildiği “büyük Avrupa devleti” kimliğinin teyidi ve buradan hareketle sınırlarının dokunulmazlığına güvence sağlanmasıdır. Osmanlı devlet adamları için Kırım Savaşı esnasında sağlanan İngiliz ve Fransız ittifakının devamı da Rus tehdidinin önünün alınması için elzemdi. Ziyaretin bir diğer amacı ise Girit İsyanı esnasında Avrupa devlet adamlarının ve kamuoyunun sempatisini kazanmaktı. Bu çalışma Sultan Abdülaziz’in 1867 Avrupa gezisinin gelişimini neden ve sonuçlarıyla incelemektedir.

An Authentic Example of Ottoman-Era Wooden Summerhouses; Cemil Topuzlu Kiosk

The beginning of the 18th century is known as the “Westernization Period” in Ottoman architecture. It was in this period that Western-born architectural movements found their way into the Ottoman Empire. This was also a time in which new types of structures emerged in Ottoman architecture as the Western influence continued to permeate both religious and civil architecture. This impact also affected the Ottoman culture of housing, leading to important changes in residential structures. The new cultural elements arriving from the West began to be apparent in the plans, facades, interiors, and decorative components of the homes of the affluent, most of which were built by Western architects. This was a time in which lifestyles were changing, and especially in the capital of Istanbul, a rich assortment of residential architecture was expressed in styles that included the Neo-Baroque, Neo-Gothic, Orientalism, Art Nouveau, Eclecticism, Swiss Châlet, and Late Victorian. One of the new types of structures that appeared in this period was the summerhouse. While these houses belonged to the wealthy Ottoman elite and reflected the traditional Ottoman residential fabric in their plans and styles, a large number carried the architectural characteristics of the summerhouses and mansions of the West. The aim of this article is to describe an authentic example of the group of wooden summerhouses that were outstanding products of Ottoman residential architecture in the 19th century, at a time when the Empire’s cultural norms were turning toward the West. The characteristics of the plans of these buildings, the configuration of their facades and decorative elements will be presented, as will other information on the wooden summerhouses of the period.

Siyaset or Politika?

Abstract In this article, we trace the diversification of Ottoman political vocabulary from the eighteenth century to the mid-nineteenth in a time of dynastic restoration and administrative modernization. We focus particularly on the transformation of the concept siyâset (rule, politics) which had been in use in Muslim polities for centuries, and the emergence, in the late eighteenth century, of the word politika which has come to be used alongside siyâset since then. In making sense of this bifurcation, we demonstrate that the Ottoman elite conceptions of politics were not simply replaced by the European conceptions. Rather, the equivalence of siyâset and politika was clearly contested by Ottoman statesmen, and the political terminology of rule and administration evolved in tandem with the material transformation of the Ottoman dynasty and state.

A Strategic Eurocentrism: The Construction of Ottoman Evolutionism in an Uneven World (1870–1900)

Istanbul's intellectual life saw an evolutionist paradigm shift during the Hamidian period (1876–1908). Two generations of intellectuals used their privileged education and the burgeoning printing press to popularize evolutionism to advance global and local claims. On the one hand, selective readings of evolutionism allowed them to claim Ottoman adherence to a superior Caucasian race and to claim belonging to the circle of “civilized nations.” On the other hand, by hailing themselves champions of a new positivist age, oppositional evolutionists sought to challenge the Hamidian establishment and the kind of Islam it represented. Because examinations of Ottoman evolutionism in the Hamidian period reveal the interconnections between new globalized ways of ordering the world, the rise of new Ottoman elites, and conflicting strategies to guarantee imperial survival in the asymmetrical age of empire, they allow transcending narratives centered on the (ir)reconcilability of Islam and evolutionary theories.

The impact of Levantine community on the westernization process of Ottoman Empire

The aim of this research is to understand the role of Levantines in the westernization process of Ottoman Empire. The scope of the study covers the second half of 19th and the first quarter of 20th century of İstanbul, specifically Galata and Pera regions which took on the appearance of a European city. The method is Center – Periphery Theory. According to the Modern World-System approach, the world is divided into two, center and periphery, and the center means both; the center in geographical sense, and also the center of the cultural values, symbols, beliefs, and behavioural patterns. In this system, above mentioned are demanded and imported by the periphery. The importation process is performed primarily by the privileged actors such as, elite class, tradesman and bureaucrats in the periphery. Within the case of Ottoman Empire and Istanbul at the time, the center was west, particularly France and the way of life was associated to the Belle Époque period. Ottoman elite living in the capital, desired a western lifestyle while the west was taken as a role model of progress during the 19th century and even later. In that period, the Ottoman elite was in a challenging attempt to westernize the Empire in every aspect of life, in collaboration with Levantines who were the European tradesman in İstanbul. Just as the West was recognized as the center of progressing and the Levantine community was the representation of west in the Ottoman capital, in other words, the West in the Orient, so Istanbul was the West in Anatolia as the center of progressing.

Shaped by the pantheistic ideology of the founders, Türkiye has used its national education curriculum as an instrument of social engineering

Despite centuries of conservative ideology inspired by Islam, the rapid economic development and consecutive millitary victories of the West had caused within the ranks of the Ottoman elite an inferiority complex generating a wave of admiration resulting in the emulation of European values. Emerging with reinforced positivist doctrines after being deeply influenced by the French revolution, this admiration turned into an irreligious political ideology creating a decentralizing effect on the ruling sultanate of the Ottoman state. After the Republic was founded in 1923, the Kemalist state ideology was imposed onto Turkish society in the form of an aggregation of materialism, social Darwinism, positivism, secularism, and Turkish nationalism. To socially engineer a modern, secular, temporal and materially prosperous nation, this ideology would in most ways carry manifestations of the very character and lifestyles of the Republic’s founders. To maintain this ideology, assertive secularism was adopted as a security measure to prevent both the re-emergence of Islamic conservatism and any other nationalist or political ideology. While the visual aspects of Islamic society were transformed into a uniform Western society through mandatory reforms, the intellectual shift from East to West was realised by means of social engineering and religious inculturation through the education curriculum. This article will portray how the founders’ belligerent belief towards Eastern-Islamic tradition motivated them towards a new Western looking secular order and how these ideas have been imposed through school textbooks.

Formation of the structure of districts of Istanbul in the Ottoman period

This article explores the historical evolution of Istanbul's spatial structure and the emergence of city centers during various periods. It begins with the city's rebuilding under Bayezid II in 1510, which became a significant reference point for surviving works and analyses. The influence of the European Renaissance on the Ottoman elite in the 17th century and the introduction of open spaces and new lifestyles are highlighted. The 18th century witnessed an influx of migrants from Anatolia, leading to the development of shantytowns in Eyup, Kasimpasha, and Uskudar. The article identifies the emergence of small city centers scattered throughout the city, lacking a coherent system. It summarizes the structural and functional changes during this period, including the emergence of new centers such as Karakoy and Sishane, the development of axes like Karakoy-Taksim and Topkhana-Ortakoy, and the introduction of the "Tunel" transportation option. Beyoglu transformed into a high-consumption hub with various amenities.

The Power and Weakness of the Sultan’s Army in the Description of the Allies of the Second Anti-French Coalition (the Asian Stage of the Campaign of 1799—1801)

The article is devoted to a little-studied event of the Napoleonic Wars: the Ottoman campaign of 1799—1801 against the French expeditionary force that captured Egypt. The events of this campaign are revealed in documents, some of which have not yet been published, and some written in Arabic and Ottoman languages are poorly introduced into scientific circulation. Of particular interest is the fact that the most informative source covering the Asian part of the campaign was Enrico Frankini, the Russian agent in the army of the Grand Vizier. Comparing the views of European and Ottoman campaign participants on the system of organization and management of the Sultan’s army, the relationship between the central and provincial authorities, the Ottomans and the Arabic-speaking population, the self-identification of Muslim soldiers and their attitude to “infidel” enemies or allies — all this allows us to better understand the mutual perception of Europeans preparing for colonial conquests in the Middle East, and the Ottoman society, which was on the verge of transformation. Realizing the need for modernization, Sultan Selim III (1789—1807) began to organize the regiments of the “new order”, but the military reform, as well as several other transformations, caused a sharp rejection of the traditional Ottoman elites. Involvement in the Napoleonic Wars, first as part of the anti-French coalition, and then on the side of France, had fatal consequences both for Selim III himself and for his reforms. A significant role in assessing the low combat capability of the Sultan’s army was played by the reports of Russian and British informants who participated in the Ottoman campaign in Egypt.

Bosna’da Timar Sisteminin Sonu (18. Yüzyıldan 20. Yüzyıla)

Ottomanists have long thought that the timar system was in decline from the end of the sixteenth century, and that it gave way to a new system, the çiftlik system. However, actual knowledge and new conceptual tools have undermined this opinion. Sources have showed that the appearance of çiftlik’s and the rise of new elites as early as the 17th century had not yet signified the end of the timar’s; it is a fact that they continued to be present until late in some provinces. It is therefore necessary to rethink the timar-çiftlik relationship, hitherto conceived as a competitive historical process which supposedly signified the decline of the timar’s and ultimately ended them. As soon as the notion of decline is questioned, or at least relativized, we are able to think of the genesis of çiftlik’s as the establishment of a fiscal complementarity, in the fiscal frame of the eighteenth century, when fiscal incitation to seizing soil was given by more and more depreciating value of money. This trend had far-reaching consequences for the relation the Ottoman elites had with landed possession.

Prelude to genocide: “the Armenian question” and the massacres in the Ottoman Empire

The faith of the Ottoman Armenians was closely linked to the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the last decades of the 19th century and the first two decades of the 20th century. The interests of the European diplomacy, the bundle of religious and ethnic communities competing for status and resources, the administrative inefficiency and corruption of state officials and a mischievous rule of Abdul Hamid II created the powder keg that led to a political deterioration for all parties involved in the Ottoman “millet system”. The status-quo of centuries of Muslim ascendancy was succumbing and the sultan’s authority was menaced by the lack of unity between the different state constituents. The Ottoman elite started looking for someone to blame for the fall back and since the Armenians were eager to improve their condition, even working together with the external enemies of the Porte, they gradually became the excellent scapegoat. The political fragility of the Ottoman state made the massacres against the Armenians possible, opening the path for a prospect to better homogenize and strengthen the state: the physical exclusion of Armenians through annihilation or ottomanization/turkification.

Making sense of an execution: Patriarch Gregory V between the Sublime Porte and the Patriarchate

This article examines the events leading to the execution of Gregory V, Patriarch of Constantinople, utilizing accounts and documents in Ottoman Turkish and Greek. Gregory was the occupant of a post which involved striking a balance between different Phanariot factions, pro- and anti-Enlightenment tendencies, and localist and imperial expectations. This article argues that it was the outbreak of the Revolution in the Morea, rather than Ypsilantis’ movement, that upset the status quo, convincing the Ottoman elite that Gregory was no longer useful for the smooth functioning of Ottoman governance.

Conversion and Polemic in the Late-Fifteenth Century Ottoman Empire: Two Polemical Treatises Against Judaism

Two Jewish converts to Islam in the service of Bayezid II penned the earliest known anti-Jewish polemicals in the Ottoman Empire. This article aims at exploring the historical context of the two epistles and their connection with Islamic polemical literature. The simultaneous appearances of Abd al-Salam’s Risāla al-hādiya and Abd al-Allam’s Risāla al-ilzām al-Yahūd will be discussed in the context of the Sephardic influx to the Ottoman lands, an encounter that stimulated scholarly interest in the Jewish faith among Ottoman intellectuals. At first glance, the two treatises seem to be structured so as to persuade a Jewish audience to embrace the Muslim faith by abandoning their former religion. However, the choice of Arabic instead of Hebrew, and the circulation of the texts primarily among Muslim readers suggest that ad- dressing the Jews appears to have been a rhetorical tactic. Considering the negative connotations attached to converts by the Ottoman elite, the authors might also have viewed the composition of anti-Jewish treatises as an effort to distance themselves from their Jewish past.

BİR TERİM OLARAK “ARNAVUT”: 18. YÜZYIL OSMANLI DÜŞÜNCESİNDE ARNAVUTLAR

Bu çalışma, modern Osmanlı dönemi öncesinde Osmanlı devlet adamları ve düşünürlerinin - modern öncesi dönemde etnik isimleriyle anılmış - Arnavut topluluklara karşı geliştirdiği söylemleri incelemektedir. Büyük ölçüde 18. yüzyıldaki Osmanlı vakanüvislerinin “Arnavut” sözcüğünü ilişkilendirdiği bağlamları irdeleyerek Osmanlı müesses nizamında Arnavutlara karşı geliştirilmiş basmakalıp ve sıklıkla pejoratif ifadeler içeren söylem diline odaklanmaktadır. 19. yüzyıl ve sonrasında bilhassa Batılı şarkiyatçı söylemlerde pejoratif sıfatlarla birlikte anılan “Arnavut” terimini, kolonyalizm öncesinde de Osmanlı seçkinleri arasında başka bir veçhe ile de olsa görmek ilginçtir. Bu makale, bir yandan bu seçkinlerin imparatorluktaki birçok göçer topluma ilişkin olumsuz kanaatlerinin etnik terimlerle ilişkilendirmedeki Halduncu düşünceyi incelerken bir yandan da bu ilişkilendirmenin 18. yüzyıldaki isyanlar sonrasındaki değişen veçhelerini ve hâkim Osmanlı söylemlerinde köklü bir yer alıp almadığına ışık tutmaktadır. Bu çalışma, Osmanlı kamu düzen, ordusu ve din anlayışı konuları üzerinden bu söylemin “Arnavut” terimiyle nasıl ilişkilendirildiğini ele alarak, Osmanlı elitlerinin bu söyleminin 19. yüzyılda “modern” ve “şarkiyatçı” saikler ile Arnavut topluluklarına yöneltilmiş pejoratif dilin temelini oluşturup oluşturmadığını araştırmaktadır.

An Introductory Inquiry on Museums’ Educational Role in the Late Ottoman Empire (1839-1915)

The Ottoman elite functionalized museums beyond being a signifier of the modern empire over time, and museums’ role gradually ascended and diversified towards the late 19th century. The vein comprised of scholars such as Wendy Shaw and Zeynep Çelik, argues that Müze-i Hümâyun (the Ottoman Imperial Museum) had directly taken part in the image and identity politics of the Empire. To extend the borders of this argument, I would like to point out the educative and intellectual role of museums in Istanbul from the late 19th to the early 20th centuries. In the light of archival documents, I suggest an examination of the aims of local visitors, and the circulation of objects. This examination will indicate that, when the focus shifts from the museum as an institution to adventures of the objects displayed, museums draw a more dynamic panorama as active participants in the education process and intellectual activities.

Modernization And Ideological Divergence Among The Bureaucracy In The Late Ottoman Empire: Suggestion For A New Classification

The ideological divergence within the bureaucracy during the modernization process in the last period of the Ottoman Empire is mostly reduced to three different ideological orientations composed of Westernism, Islamism, and Turkism in the relevant literature. However, claiming that this model, which is formulated regarding the classical works of Gökalp and Akçura, could not adequately explain the actual ideological division between the bureaucrats of the period, this study aims to propose a new theoretical framework based upon an alternative tripartite model. For this, Anthony D. Smith’s infamous theoretical explanation about the ideological-strategic differences between the bureaucratic elites of various societies, which rise as a response to the experience of modernization, is re-evaluated and reformulated concerning the intellectual contribution revealed in classical and contemporary studies on the ideological and intellectual orientations within the late Ottoman elites. Accordingly, the first ideological orientation within the elite groups that fundamentally stood against any attempts in the name of modernization and advocated retaining the Islamic tradition could be entitled “traditionalism.” The second one, which could be named “Westernism” (Westernist modernism), asserted that the only way to capture Western civilization was following the same modernization path as the West, contrary to the previous orientation. “Conservatism” (conservative modernism), the third and final ideological orientation, made a distinction between the fields of culture and civilization and idealized to implement a conservative version of modernization by synthesizing Islamic tradition with the technical developments of the contemporary Western world.

“They Call Them Antiḳa”. Ottoman Travellers in Italy and the Idea of Antiquities in the Early Tanzimat Period

Abstract During the nineteenth century, the Ottoman fashion of looking at archaeological relics, present in large quantities in the territories of the Empire, deeply changed. This paper examines the reports of three Ottoman travellers who visited European countries in the early Tanzimat period. They introduced a new conceptualization of antiquities that stemmed from the direct observation of ancient monuments and museums in Italian cities. My argument is that the experience of travelling in Italy was one of the factors that contributed to shaping the new perception of antiquities that was emerging among the Ottoman elite.