Osteomusculocutaneous Flap Research Articles

Maxillo-mandibular Defect Reconstruction with Bilateral Free Fibula Flaps with Dental Implant Placement and Immediate Loading: A Case Report of the Three-team Approach.

Patients with advanced malignant tumors, including both jaws, is a challenging task for a head and neck surgeon. Current treatment landscape demonstrates good functional, anatomical, and aesthetic results in patients who could previously receive only palliative care. The extensive tissue defects resulting from oncological resections in the head and neck region require immediate reconstruction due to the exposure of vital structures and their contact with the external environment. A patient was operated using a three-team multidisciplinary approach involving simultaneous work of three specialized teams of maxillofacial and reconstructive microsurgeons, as well as an implantologist and a prosthodontist. This approach allowed simultaneous tumor resection with subsequent reconstruction of the intraoperative defect involving bilateral harvesting of two revascularized free fibular osteomusculocutaneous flaps with dental implantation and simultaneous rehabilitation of dentition with crowns.

Refractory advanced osteoradionecrosis (ORN) in the mandible: Analysis of predictive factors, clinical, imaging, and therapeutic characteristics

Introduction: Osteoradionecrosis (ORN) of the jaws is a late, severe and difficult to manage side effect in patients who underwent radiotherapy (RT) in the head and neck region. Treatment remains controversial, especially in refractory cases that do not respond to multiple attempts with different therapies, due to their complex pathophysiology. It is based on conservative non-surgical approaches, even in large resections using free flaps. The present study aims to present and describe a clinical case of refractory ORN treated through microsurgical reconstruction and adjuvant therapies. Case Report: A 51-year-old female patient with oncological background of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) of the floor of the mouth, previously treated with marginal mandibulectomy, and who subsequently relapsed. In a second surgical time, left hemimandibulectomy was performed, followed by microsurgical reconstruction with the fibular osteomusculocutaneous free flap, besides, dental implants were placed in the perioperative time. Radiotherapy was performed using a 3D conformal technique technique with a total dose of 66 Gy and after six months the patient developed infection in the treated region and it was observed partial exposure of the fibular flap and intra and extraoral purulent drainage, and after imaging analysis the diagnosis of ORN was established. Some non-surgical therapeutic attempts were performed without clinical response and a new surgical approach was performed based on sequestrectomy, the removal of the titanium plaque and dental implants with a second microsurgical reconstruction with forearm fasciocutaneous free flap to cover the soft tissue defect was done. Conclusion: The pathophysiology of ORN remains controversial and the predictive factors for its appearance, development, and progression are still unclear. Marginal mandibulectomy could be associated with a rapid onset of ORN in patients submitted to adjuvant RT and it could be considered as a potential predictive factor. Combined therapies are reliable alternatives for local control in refractory cases and in advanced stages, and surgical removal with microsurgical reconstruction procedures are still a feasible alternative that has shown satisfactory clinical results.

Refractory advanced osteoradionecrosis (ORN) in the mandible: Analysis of predictive factors, clinical, imaging, and therapeutic characteristics

Introduction: Osteoradionecrosis (ORN) of the jaws is a late, severe and difficult to manage side effect in patients who underwent radiotherapy (RT) in the head and neck region. Treatment remains controversial, especially in refractory cases that do not respond to multiple attempts with different therapies, due to their complex pathophysiology. It is based on conservative non-surgical approaches, even in large resections using free flaps. The present study aims to present and describe a clinical case of refractory ORN treated through microsurgical reconstruction and adjuvant therapies. Case Report: A 51-year-old female patient with oncological background of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) of the floor of the mouth, previously treated with marginal mandibulectomy, and who subsequently relapsed. In a second surgical time, left hemimandibulectomy was performed, followed by microsurgical reconstruction with the fibular osteomusculocutaneous free flap, besides, dental implants were placed in the perioperative time. Radiotherapy was performed using a 3D conformal technique technique with a total dose of 66 Gy and after six months the patient developed infection in the treated region and it was observed partial exposure of the fibular flap and intra and extraoral purulent drainage, and after imaging analysis the diagnosis of ORN was established. Some non-surgical therapeutic attempts were performed without clinical response and a new surgical approach was performed based on sequestrectomy, the removal of the titanium plaque and dental implants with a second microsurgical reconstruction with forearm fasciocutaneous free flap to cover the soft tissue defect was done. Conclusion: The pathophysiology of ORN remains controversial and the predictive factors for its appearance, development, and progression are still unclear. Marginal mandibulectomy could be associated with a rapid onset of ORN in patients submitted to adjuvant RT and it could be considered as a potential predictive factor. Combined therapies are reliable alternatives for local control in refractory cases and in advanced stages, and surgical removal with microsurgical reconstruction procedures are still a feasible alternative that has shown satisfactory clinical results.

Clinical application and update on anatomical study of descending genicular artery perforator flap

As the descending genicular artery supplies multiple perforating branches around the knee joint, it can be used in corticocancellous, osteomusculocutaneous and other composite tissue flaps to repair composite tissue defects at one stage. Consequently it plays a very important role in the field of reconstruction surgery. At present, however, there has been no systematic review of its clinical applications. Having reviewed all the recent reports available on the free tissue perforator flaps with descending genicular artery, we classified them into five major forms. In this paper, we comment on their anatomical mechanisms, variations and clinical applications. Additionally, we predict that digital technology will be used in the future clinical application of the perforator tissue flaps with descending genicular artery. Key words: Surgical flaps; Transplantation; Anatomy

Modified osteomyocutaneous iliac crest flaps transplantation

The paper aims to improve the operative technique of osteomyocutaneous iliac crest flap harvesting, further minimise morbidity of donor site, and improve the effect of recipient site reconstruction. From March 2005 to March 2011, 55 cases of osteomyocutaneous iliac crest flap harvested by different methods were performed to reconstruct the defects of the extremities. Twenty-nine cases were reconstructed with a traditional deep circumflex iliac artery osteomusculocutaneous flap. Twenty-six cases were repaired with modified osteomyocutaneous iliac crest flaps. In 29 cases with a traditional DCIA osteomusculocutaneous flap, two cases showed the injured lateral femoral cutaneous nerve. Flapnecrosis was significant in two cases. Arterial compromise occurred in one case 5 days after operation completion and led to flap failure. Three flaps developed postoperative venous congestion, but only one flap received re-exploration. In the other two cases, some stitches were removed for decompression. All three flaps survived. In two cases, marginal flap necrosis occurred, but no secondary skin grafting was required. In 26 cases with modified flap transplantation, one case showed the injured lateral femoral cutaneous nerve. All flaps survived totally. Osseous integration was achieved in all 55 cases in 3 ∼ 9 months after operation. The modified osteomyocutaneous iliac crest flap technique enhances flap safety, provides the additional advantages of reducing donor-site morbidity, and improves the recipient-site contour.

Free Tensor Fascia Lata-Iliac Crest Osteomusculocutaneous Flap for Reconstruction of Combined Maxillectomy and Orbital Floor Defect

Reconstruction of maxillectomy with extensive orbital rim and floor excision defects is a challenging problem. The goal of reconstruction here is to provide adequate orbital support to prevent enophthalmos and diplopia as well as obturation of the palatal defect. The existing methods of the reconstruction fail to simultaneously address these 2 goals of reconstruction. A new method of reconstruction of these defects using tensor fascia lata-iliac crest flap was used in 7 cases of cancers of the maxilla, which necessitated extensive resection of the orbital floor along with the maxillectomy. The flap was raised as a muscle and bone flap in 5 cases and in 2, a skin paddle was included. The immediate and delayed outcome at 6-month follow-up was analyzed. The functional outcome with regards to the ocular position and function, palatal obturation, speech, and swallowing were recorded. The bone viability at 6 months was assessed by computed tomography scan. The flap was successful in all the 7 cases. The delayed outcome assessment showed that the orbital support was excellent with no diplopia in all the cases. The palatal defect could be covered successfully in all the cases, resulting in normal speech and swallowing. The computed tomography scan showed excellent integration of the bone. The free tensor fascia lata-iliac crest flap is a reliable and safe method of reconstruction of the orbitomaxillary defects, addressing the issues of both orbital support and palatal obturation.

A Composite Osteomusculocutaneous Free Flap from the Medial Femoral Condyle for Reconstruction of Complex Defects

This combined anatomic and clinical study illustrates the first experiences of an osteomyocutaneous flap from the medial femoral condyle for reconstruction of composite tissue defects. We analyzed the anatomic consistency and the vascular distribution of this flap and showed that muscle tissue can easily be added as a composite flap. Twenty-one flaps were harvested from fresh adult cadavers with careful identification of the origin and the course of the three different branches of the descending genicular artery. The corresponding skin areas and muscle portion were identified. The clinical application of this flap was described for closure of complex calcaneal defects. The cadaveric study presented a constant pedicle length and diameter of the arteries, combined with a constant venous drainage. Furthermore, the medial condyle provided a corticocancellous segment and separate vascularity for skin and muscle portions. In the case reports, satisfying results of bone union and soft tissue contouring were achieved. The medial femur condyle region is a reliable donor site for composite flaps, providing a good corticocancellous bony structure and a separate skin paddle, as well as a muscle portion. Its vascular distribution shows anatomic consistency. Despite long-term atrophy of muscle transplants, we believe the additional muscle tissue improves the reconstruction results and provides better soft tissue contouring.

Osteomusculocutaneous flap for clavicular reconstruction: a case report

Sir, My interest was piqued by Yel et al. [1] with their fascinating article titled, “Osteomusculocutaneous Xap for clavicular reconstruction: a case report.” The authors reported a case of persistent clavicular nonunion after pathologic fracture because of necrotic Wbrosis due to radiation for breast cancer therapy. They managed it with compound riblatissimus dorsi osteomusculocutaneous Xap and a 4 cm segment of the sixth rib. Clavicle orientation is found to rotate from a primarily craniocaudal orientation at the sternum to a primarily anteroposterior orientation at the acromion. Although it appears almost straight when viewed from the front, when viewed from above, the clavicle appears as an S-shaped double curve that is concave ventrally on its outer half and convex ventrally on its medial half. In cases of total excision of clavicle, reconstructive surgery should be considered if shoulder function is decreased. But is diYcult to restore the normal shape of clavicle, by the use of bone interposition graft, because of its particular shape. However, an anatomic reconstruction may oVer normal function of the shoulder, prevent luxation of the clavicle and satisfy cosmetic demands. Total replacement of the clavicle with vascularised and osteotomised Wbula has been already reported once [2]. Three fragments of double osteotomised Wbula with appropriate angulations were plated with two titanium compression plates and resulted to a neoclavicle, with good results to be mentioned after 2 years of follow up. But no X-rays have been provided after the follow up to conWrm the anatomical restoration of the neoclavicle. Probably with this operative technique, the shape of clavicle is restored almost anatomically in this way. This suggestion became strong when a malunion of humerus fracture resulted in S-shape, was observed in our institution. Recently, a 30-year-old man was admitted to our hospital because of a malunion of proximal humerus. He was presented with his upper extremity internally rotated. Surprisingly, his olecranon was in the front side of his upper extremity. According to his history, he was sustained a fracture of proximal diaphysis of humerus before 25 years, after a traYc accident. Because of other fatal injuries such splenic rupture, Xail chest and lung contusions, the humerus fracture was misdiagnosed. Finally, his fracture was malunited with his humerus rotated about 180°. Clinical examination was revealed a humerus which was concave ventrally on its half and a normal shoulder. His X-ray showed an S-shaped humerus like the shape of clavicle. Immediately, we hypothesized that rotation instability may be responsible for an S-shape of a long bone. As a matter of fact rotation instability leads to scoliosis deformity also. In X-rays the normal thoracic or lumbar spine it appears straight when viewed from the front, but it appears as an S-shaped in scoliosis. It is well known that idiopathic scoliosis is a threedimensional deformity of the spine combining lateral curvature with vertebral body rotation [3]. The essential lesion lies in the sagittal plane in the nature of lordosis. It has been showed that the spinal deformity in pinealectomized chickens developed rotational lordoscoliosis similar to human idiopathic scoliosis [4]. In similar way after B. Saccomanni (&) Orthopaedic and Traumatologic Surgery, University of Chieti, Via dei Vestini, 66013 Chieti Scalo, Italy e-mail: bernasacco@yahoo.it

The Anatomical Basis of the Deep Circumflex Iliac Artery Perforator Flap with Iliac Crest

Perforator flaps are increasingly used because of advantages including reduced flap bulk, less donor-site morbidity, and more donor-site options. The deep circumflex iliac artery (DCIA) osteomusculocutaneous flap with iliac crest has been one of the most useful flaps used for mandibular reconstruction. However, its use has been limited by its bulkiness and added donor-site morbidity because of the inclusion of an "obligatory muscle cuff" of abdominal muscle. Early results at designing a DCIA perforator flap to circumvent this problem have been varied. Details regarding the location, number, and reliability of DCIA musculocutaneous perforators have been conflicting. The purpose of this study was to comprehensively document the anatomical basis of the DCIA perforator flap. Six fresh bodies underwent whole-body lead oxide injection (n = 12 specimens). Landmarks were identified with radiopaque markers. Dissection, angiography, and photography were used to document the precise course of individual perforators in the flank region. Angiograms were assembled with Adobe Photoshop and analyzed with Scion Image Beta. An average of 1.6 DCIA perforators with a diameter of 0.7 mm was present in 92 percent of specimens. Perforators were located 5 to 11 cm posterior to the anterior superior iliac spine, 1 to 35 mm superior to the iliac crest, with a perforator zone of 31 cm. The DCIA perfused the medial aspect of the iliac crest. This article establishes the anatomical basis of the DCIA perforator flap with iliac crest. This perforator flap, along with a split iliac crest, will likely diminish donor-site morbidity and facilitate oromandibular reconstruction.

Single osteotomized iliac crest free flap in anterior mandible reconstruction

While the iliac crest flap provides a natural contour for the lateral segment of the mandible, for the anterior segment en bloc, the use of the iliac graft, even harvested in a V shape, fails to yield a three-dimensional natural-shaped reconstruction. In this report, we present our experience with reconstruction of the anterior segment of the mandible using a single osteotomized free iliac crest flap in 5 patients. The study comprised 4 male patients and 1 female patient, their ages ranging between 34-82 years. In all patients, composite iliac osteomusculocutaneous flaps were harvested based on the deep circumflex iliac artery in the standard manner, and the bony segment of the flap was divided into two segments, performing a single osteotomy. The fixation of bone segments was performed in new positions, sliding the segments in different planes to provide the original shape of the resected mandible segment, and in a manner appropriate to the defect. The overall flap success rate was 100%. In no cases were wound infections or hematomas observed. X-rays showed bone healing without resorption. In conclusion, the use of a single osteotomy for an iliac crest flap in the reconstruction of the anterior segment of the mandible is a simple and safe procedure, and provides a natural and acceptable jaw appearance. The risk of devascularization is quite low when compared with the multiple osteotomy procedure, and it does not need to be fixed with complex devices such as reconstruction plates or external fixators.

Free tissue transfer to a difficult wound of the lower extremity.

Amputation is still recommended to patients with a difficult wound of the lower extremity because limb salvage after free tissue transfer in these patients remains uncertain. During the past 3 years, the authors studied 15 patients (11 men, 4 women; age range, 17-71 years) with difficult wounds of the lower extremities who had free tissue transfers for limb salvage. Eleven patients had an extensive soft-tissue defect (nearly the entire length) of the legs or feet, and 4 had a composite-tissue defect of the legs or feet that required bony reconstruction. A total of 16 free tissue transfers (13 free muscle flaps, 2 osteomusculocutaneous flaps, and 1 adipofascial flap) were performed in 15 patients (1 patient had bilateral transfers). A saphenous vein loop or graft was used in 3 patients and a subsequent bone graft was done in 2 patients. Free tissue transfer was accomplished successfully in 14 patients (93%). Limb salvage was achieved ultimately in 12 patients (80%) who were able to ambulate during a 36-month follow-up. The authors believe that free tissue transfer for limb salvage in any patient with a difficult wound of the lower extremity is still a worthwhile procedure and should be attempted if possible. Meticulous preoperative preparation and intraoperative execution combined with the use of innovative microsurgical techniques are the keys for success.

Functional Reconstruction of Maxilla with Free Latissimus Dorsi-Scapular Osteomusculocutaneous Flap

Restoration of oral and nasal function together with facial appearance is still challenging in maxillary reconstruction. Use of a composite flap transfer merely to fill the defect results in unsatisfactory functional and aesthetic outcomes. The authors present a reconstructive procedure for complex maxillary defects using the latissimus dorsi-scapular rib osteomusculocutaneous flap. Some modifications for the reconstruction of the nasal cavity and the hard palate contributed to excellent postoperative functions. Five cases of extended maxillary defect were reconstructed using a novel procedure between February of 1997 and October of 2000. The hard palate was reconstructed with a vascularized scapular angle. The infraorbital rim was reconstructed with a vascularized rib if it was required. A prop bone graft, replacing the zygomatic buttress, was added between the infraorbital rim and the hard palate. The latissimus dorsi muscle flap, which was supported by a skeletal framework and obliterated the remaining cavities around the bone grafts, was left exposed into the nasal cavity, and an 8-French (no. 10) nasal airway tube was placed as a stent in the nasal meatus for 3 weeks after surgery. A skin graft was applied on the scapular angle to reconstruct the oral side of the hard palate. If required, facial skin defect was repaired with a latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap or scapular flap. No major complications at the recipient or the donor sites occurred postoperatively in any of the five cases. In cases in which the eyeballs were preserved, almost normal facial appearance was obtained and an orbital extirpation case showed an acceptable postoperative appearance. All five patients returned to an unrestricted diet and their speech was assessed as normal by a speech test. Nasal breathing through the re-epithelialized meatus was possible in all cases. The reconstructed nasal cavity was maintained for more than 6 months in all cases and for more than 2 years in one early case. Rhinometry demonstrated normal function, and histologic findings of the re-epithelialized mucosa over the muscle flap in the nasal cavity revealed a nearly normal architecture. This technique simplifies the reconstructive procedure of massive maxillary defects, including those in the lateral wall of the nasal cavity. It also improves the postoperative oral and nasal functions of the patients.

Reconstruction of the upper extremity with a compound rib-latissimus dorsi osteomusculocutaneous flap.

The reliability and versatility of the pedicled latissimus dorsi muscle or osteomusculocutaneous flap make it our first choice in the management of upper arm injuries and we have treated three such patients in this way. They had severe skeletonising, crushing injuries of an upper extremity with humeral defects that were treated with latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flaps and segments taken from the ribs. All the flaps survived completely with no injury of the pleura at the donor site. The reconstructed humerus was strong enough for the patients to participate in all activities of daily living. We think that this technique is suitable for the upper arm defects with humeral loss because of its simplicity and minimal morbidity.

A new flap model in rats: iliac osteomusculocutaneous flap.

Although osteomusculocutaneous flaps are used frequently in clinical practice to repair defects involving soft tissue and bone, there are still many questions that remain to be answered regarding their basic physiology. To accomplish such basic science studies, simple and reliable animal osteomusculocutaneous flap models are needed. The purpose of this study was to describe a new flap model in rats--namely, the iliac osteomusculocutaneous flap. Thirty adult Wistar rats weighing 200 to 250 g were used in this experiment. In 15 rats, the vascular anatomy of the iliolumbar vessels and their relation with adjacent soft tissues and the iliac bone was determined by anatomic dissection. Based on this anatomic study, the iliac osteomusculocutaneous flap model was created in rats. The flap is comprised of a skin island (3 x 3 cm) in the flank region, a 1 x 1-cm segment of iliac bone, and an abdominal wall muscle cuff. In 10 rats, the flap was raised as an island flap based on its vascular pedicle of iliolumbar vessels, and was replaced in situ. In the remaining 5 rats, the flap was transferred to the groin region as a free flap. Direct observation on postoperative day 7 revealed that the skin island of all the flaps was completely viable. Bone scintigraphy performed on postoperative day 3 in free flaps demonstrated radionuclide uptake, indicating viability of the bony segment. The dye injection study revealed ink staining within blood vessels of the bone, confirming its viability. Microangiography of the flap demonstrated vascularity of each component of the flap by the iliolumbar vessels, including a distinct branch to the iliac bone. The authors conclude that the iliac osteomusculocutaneous flap of the rat is a simple and reliable flap model that offers the following advantages: (1) It is a true osteomusculocutaneous flap, (2) it can be used as a free flap without the need for an isogeneic rat, (3) the vascular pedicle is consistent, and (4) it is harvested from a small-animal species.

Free Vascularized Iliac Osteomusculocutaneous Flaps Based on the Lateral Circumflex Femoral System for Repair of Large Mandibular Defects

A free vascularized iliac osteocutaneous flap based on the ascending and transverse branches of the lateral circumflex femoral system was studied by cadaveric investigation. These composite flaps were successfully used in 2 patients with both large mandibular and soft-tissue defects. The advantages of this flap are that (1) the distal portion of the flap is relatively thin, (2) the pedicle vessels are long and large, (3) the skin territory is extremely wide, (4) repositioning of the patient during the operation is unnecessary, (5) the flap can be elevated while the recipient mandibular region is resected by two teams because the donor site is far from the head and neck regions, (6) the donor scar is in an unexposed area and its location permits easy concealment, and (7) subtotal loss of the mandible can be reconstructed with the use of split crests from either side of the ilium because the external and the internal cortices are fed independently by the lateral circumflex femoral and the deep circumflex iliac systems. This appears to be a new concept for reconstruction of total mandibular loss.

Clinical evaluation of the pectoralis major flap for reconstruction in head and neck cancer.

Sixty two patients (7 women and 55 men) with head and neck cancer underwent 64 musculocutaneous or osteomusculocutaneous reconstructions in the Department of Head and Neck Tumours, Estonian Cancer Centre, from May 1988 to December 1991. Two men had two reconstructions. The patients were evaluated for surgical, functional, aesthetic, and also for oncological results. The flap-related complication rate was higher among women than men (6/7 (86%) compared with 19/57 (33%), p = 0.012), and in the group of osteomusculocutaneous flaps which contained a segment of the fifth or sixth rib compared with the musculocutaneous ones (5/6 (83%) compared with 20/58 (34%), p = 0.03). The functional results were good or satisfactory in 41/60 (68%) of the cases. Mean follow-up time was 32 months; 31/58 (53%) of patients operated on due to primary or recurrent cancer are alive, with or without recurrent disease. We do not recommend the inclusion of rib segments in pedicled pectoral flaps for reconstructions of head and neck defects.

The trapezius osteomusculocutaneous flap in dogs.

A pedicled osteomusculocutaneous flap, composed of the cervical part of the trapezius muscle with its overlying skin and the central spine and body of the scapula, was elevated on the prescapular branch of the superficial cervical vascular pedicle in four dogs. The flap was replaced in an orthotopic location. Bone viability was evaluated using histology, fluorescence bone labeling, and angiography. Bone from the scapular spines had a high percentage of viable osteocytes, positive fluorescence, and vessels were outlined in the angiographic study. Bone from the body of the scapula was not viable based on similar criteria.

New dimensions for the vital storage of microsurgical free flaps: an experimental approach.

A revolutionary circulatory system has been developed to nourish big, free osteomusculocutaneous flaps extracorporally. Thus we will be able to transplant the free flaps to defect areas that have no sufficient vascular situation. In respect to the cold storage of microsurgical free flaps, to date maximal periods of ischaemic tolerance have been considerably exceeded; the maximal period is currently 168 hours. The vitality of the flap is monitored through parameters setting forth the consumption of oxygen together with histology and electron microscopy. The oxygenation of the nutritive medium is achieved through an aqueous phase gas exchange.

The Osteo-Musculocutaneous Musculoperitoneal Groin Flap in Head and Neck Reconstruction

The anatomy of the ascending branch of the deep circumflex iliac vessels is reported. This vasculature allows the design of a musculoperitoneal flap, not exceeding 7 cm x 14 cm, together with an osteomusculocutaneous groin flap. The procedure is particularly useful, if resection of an intraoral carcinoma has included such structures as bone and the outer skin of the head and neck. The flap can be harvested with or without the internal oblique muscle. Most common composite defects after resection can be replaced by an osteomusculoperitoneal flap. Clinical applications are also described and one case report is included.

Recovery of sensation in free flaps.

A clinical study of touch, pain, warm and cold stimuli and two-point discrimination was performed in 27 free flaps four months to four years after the microsurgical procedure. There were 5 free skin flaps (2 with nerve suture), 15 musculocutaneous, 4 muscle-covered with split skin grafts and 3 osteomusculocutaneous flaps transplanted to various sites on the body. The results show full or nearly full recovery of touch and pain sensation in all free skin flaps. The musculocutaneous and osteomusculocutaneous free flaps developed good sensation if firmly grown onto the healthy recipient skin with normal sensation. Muscle flaps covered with split skin grafts and all flaps surrounded by scar tissue had a clinical absence of sensation. This study and our earlier findings of the regeneration of nerves in free skin grafts, in skin flaps and in experimental free flaps, lead us to suggest that the healthy denervated skin of the free flap provides a strong neurotrophic stimulus to the cut cutaneous nerves in the edges of the recipient skin. Cutaneous nerves freely regenerate in the loose subcutaneous tissue of the flap. We therefore conclude that all free flaps with skin islands have a potential for developing sufficient protective touch and pain sensation and even some superficial sensitivity.