Organizational Development Research Articles

A Study of Workplace Ethics and Its Impact on Audit Quality

Workplace ethics play a crucial role in shaping organizational culture and influencing key outcomes such as audit quality. This study investigates the relationship between workplace ethics and audit quality using a survey-based quantitative approach. Responses were collected from 50 accounting professionals using a structured questionnaire measuring ethical perceptions and audit-related performance indicators. The findings reveal a strong, statistically significant positive correlation between perceived workplace ethics and audit quality, which was not statistically significant. These results suggest that while ethics may influence audit quality, other contextual or structural variables could also play an important role. The study discusses implications for organizational leadership, audit practices, and policy development aimed at improving audit reliability through ethical reinforcement.

Guidance to critical realism mixed-methods research framework: A must-adopt approach to explore the relationship of social realities

This study examines the fundamentals of adopting a Critical Realist Mixed-Methods Research Framework to investigate the complex interplay of social realities. Rooted in Roy Bhaskar's philosophical foundations, particularly his stratified ontology and commitment to epistemological Realism, this framework offers a structured lens through which researchers can move beyond surface-level observations to examine the deeper causal mechanisms at work. Drawing on Margaret Archer's morphogenetic approach and Tony Lawson's theory of social positioning, it facilitates a nuanced analysis of how structural, cultural, and individual (agential) factors interact to shape related behaviors and their outcomes. By integrating the methodological insights of Zachariadis et al. (2013) and Douglas (2010), the research design employs both quantitative and qualitative strands in a retroductive logic of inquiry, allowing for an iterative movement between empirical data and theoretical abstraction. The study further operationalizes realist evaluation principles (Pawson and Tilley, 1997; Allana and Clark, 2018) and realist explanatory case study methods (Eastwood et al., 2016) to investigate how mechanisms such as power dynamics, organizational routines, leadership practices, and cultural equity influence occupational health and safety (OHS) performance under specific contextual conditions. The framework also incorporates applied insights from recent realist-informed research in safety, public health, and organizational development (Muselela et al., 2022a, 2022b, 2023; Chebrolu et al., 2024), ensuring methodological coherence and practical relevance. This approach ultimately aims to inform more reflexive, context-sensitive management strategies within globalized industrial environments.

Exploring the driving mechanisms behind the formation of agricultural science and technology innovation clusters: a case study of Lanling County, China

This study examines the mechanisms underlying the formation and development of agricultural science and technology innovation clusters, using Lanling County in China as a representative case. It addresses how localized innovation strategies contribute to rural industrial transformation within the broader context of national agricultural modernization. Employing a qualitative case study approach, the research integrates field observations, semi-structured interviews, and document analysis. The analytical framework is informed by industrial cluster theory and the regional innovation systems perspective. The study identifies and examines the interactive dynamics among four major drivers: natural and socioeconomic resource endowments, market demand, policy support, and technological innovation. The findings reveal that the emergence and consolidation of the Lanling vegetable innovation cluster is the outcome of synergetic interactions between endogenous innovation capabilities and exogenous enabling conditions. Strategic interventions—such as the construction of intelligent greenhouses, the expansion of specialized production bases, cooperative organization development, and the implementation of quality control systems—have collectively advanced the region's agricultural upgrading. The study contributes to theoretical discourse by extending cluster theory to the agricultural sector and illustrating the applicability of regional innovation systems in rural contexts. Practically, it offers policy-relevant pathways including the enhancement of technological service networks, market responsiveness, environmental governance, and enterprise collaboration. The research provides replicable insights for other regions seeking to promote sustainable agricultural transformation through innovation-driven development.

Advancing Human Resource Practices In Hospitality: A Bibliometric Analysis Of Hris Adoption And Implications For Hr Professionals

This bibliometric study investigates the evolution and scholarly trends surrounding the adoption of Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS) and their implications for human resource (HR) professionals within the hospitality sector. Employing a quantitative descriptive approach, the study assesses the global distribution and thematic focus of HRIS-related publications indexed in the Scopus database. The analysis reveals that 11 of the 40 reviewed articles affirm that the development and implementation of HRIS significantly enhance managerial efficiency by streamlining HR operations, optimising workforce utilisation, and reducing the demand for extensive HR investment. Furthermore, HRIS is recognised for fostering greater employee participation and contributing to organisational development. Recent literature offers valuable perspectives on the strategic integration of HRIS in the hospitality industry, particularly in addressing operational complexities such as shift scheduling, the management of seasonal labour, compliance with hospitality regulations, and the delivery of service excellence through targeted training. These insights are crucial in a sector characterised by high labour mobility, customer-centric performance standards, and operational unpredictability. This study contributes a comprehensive synthesis of the current knowledge landscape, identifying key research gaps and emerging directions. The findings reinforce the notion that HRIS is not only a tool for administrative efficiency but also a critical enabler of workforce engagement and performance optimisation in hotels and hospitality enterprises. The paper concludes with a call for future bibliometric and empirical research to bridge conceptual and practical dimensions of HRIS, especially concerning its integration with advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), blockchain, and 5G. These innovations are poised to reshape the contours of HR practice and digital transformation within the global hospitality industry.

Social Capital, Crop Differences, and Farmers’ Climate Change Adaptation Behaviors: Evidence from Yellow River, China

Against the backdrop of global climate change, enhancing farmers’ adaptive capacity to reduce crop production risks has emerged as a critical concern for governments and researchers worldwide. Drawing on social capital theory, this study develops a four-dimensional measurement framework comprising social networks, social trust, social norms, and social participation, utilizing survey data from 1772 households in the Yellow River Basin. We employ factor analysis to construct comprehensive social capital scores and apply ordered Probit models to examine how social capital influences farmers’ climate adaptation behaviors, with particular attention to the moderating roles of agricultural extension interaction and digital literacy. Key findings include: (1) Adoption patterns: Climate adaptation behavior adoption remains low (60%), with technical adaptation measures showing particularly poor uptake (13%); (2) Direct effects: Social capital significantly promotes adaptation behaviors, with social trust (p < 0.01), networks (p < 0.01), and participation (p < 0.05) demonstrating positive effects, while social norms show no significant impact; (3) Heterogeneous effects: Impact mechanisms differ by crop type, with grain producers relying more heavily on social networks (+, p < 0.01) and cash crop producers depending more on social trust (+, p < 0.01); (4) Moderating mechanisms: Agricultural extension interaction exhibits scale-dependent effects, negatively moderating the relationship for large-scale farmers (p < 0.05) while showing no significant effects for smaller operations; digital literacy consistently demonstrates negative moderation, whereby higher literacy levels weaken social capital’s promotional effects (p < 0.01). Policy recommendations: Effective climate adaptation strategies should integrate strengthened rural social organization development, differentiated agricultural extension systems tailored to farm characteristics, and enhanced rural digital infrastructure investment.

The Role of Corporate Waqf in Financial Sustainability and Socioeconomic Development Insights from Waqaf An-Nur Corporation Berhad

This study explores the ethical practices of employees in a local government institution in Bukidnon, Philippines, amid growing expectations for integrity, transparency, and accountability in public service. Specifically, it aims to identify employee ethical behaviors across personal, interpersonal, and organizational domains, examine the perceived importance of ethical conduct, and assess its effect on organizational development. A descriptive research design was utilized, employing purposive non-probability sampling. The primary data collection instrument was a modified survey questionnaire adapted from the Institute of Business Ethics. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The findings revealed that ethical practices were consistently upheld across all domains, with interpersonal ethics, such as respect, teamwork, and professionalism, emerging as the most dominant. Employees viewed ethical behaviour as integral to fostering a positive work culture, enhancing public confidence, and aligning individual performance with institutional values. Ethical conduct was perceived to significantly strengthen organizational reputation, support resource efficiency, and ensure long-term effectiveness. However, the study also noted operational challenges, particularly in maintaining confidentiality and consistent attendance, indicating strategic improvement areas. These challenges underscore the necessity for targeted interventions to reinforce ethical standards and address areas where adherence may be lacking. In conclusion, the research affirms that ethical behavior is ingrained in the organizational culture of local government service and serves as a key driver of individual accountability and institutional success. Recommendations include ongoing ethics education, reinforced policy enforcement, and cultivating a value-driven workplace culture to institutionalize ethical standards within government agencies, thereby promoting integrity, transparency, and excellence in public service.

Burden, clinical outcomes, and characteristics of tuberculosis in migrant populations in the middle East and North African region: A systematic review and meta-analyses.

Burden, clinical outcomes, and characteristics of tuberculosis in migrant populations in the middle East and North African region: A systematic review and meta-analyses.

Management of academic development of academic staff through the lens of disciplinary sociological theories

The article presents an analysis of management of academic development of academic staff from the perspective of various sociological theories. Theу include the theory of labour alienation, structural functionalism, sociologism, sociological understanding, symbolic interactionism, theory of rationalisation, symbolic interactionism, theories of human capital, trust, habitus, and weak ties. Each of these perspectives has specific features and can be applied to analyse different aspects of the management process. By using a range of the sociological theories, a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics involved in the academic development process can be formed. This, in turn, leads to more effective management strategies from university administrators. The article discusses how various aspects of the sociological theories can be applied by university management representatives to improve the academic development process of the academic staff. It emphasises the importance of integrating different approaches to achieve the best results in managing the academic development of these professionals. The author argues that insufficient integration of the sociological theories may negatively affect organisational development of the university and distance it from its strategic priorities. The article is aimed at university management representatives responsible for the strategic and academic development as well as at direct participants of the academic environment and at specialists involved in educational programme design and organisational development.

The dark side of conscientious branding: exploring the interplay between moral failures and organizational resilience

Abstract Many marketing managers face challenges in building a strong brand capable of making a positive transformative impact on the society and environment. The emerging research stream on conscientious branding addresses these challenges by providing core insights on the nature of a brand with a conscience and conscientious brand management. However, the dark side of conscientious branding, where organizations commit to conscientious branding, but still conduct moral failures, is under-investigated in prior research. The main purpose of this study is to explore the interplay between conscientious branding, moral failures, and organizational resilience by examining violations in commercial advertising. The study focuses on violations related to environmental claims in marketing communications. By using content analysis, the study examines the decisions about cases, which received an upheld outcome by the Swedish Advertising Ombudsman (Reklamombudsmannen), signifying a violation in marketing ethics and indicating a moral failure. The study proposes the general categorization of organizations based on conscientious branding practices and organizational responses to a moral failure. The findings demonstrate that conscientious brand management can not only facilitate organizational moral development in the short term, but also reinforce persistent resilience in the long term.

How the Human–Artificial Intelligence (AI) Collaboration Affects Cyberloafing: An AI Identity Perspective

Collaboration with artificial intelligence (AI) not only improves employees’ work efficiency but also provides them with opportunities to participate in other behaviors. Among the various behaviors that have garnered the attention of organizations, cyberloafing has historically been a focus. Drawing from social identity theory (SIT), this research examines how human–AI collaboration diminishes cyberloafing by fostering AI identity (dependence, emotional energy, relatedness). A three-wave study (N = 381) revealed that AI collaboration strengthened employees’ AI identity, enabling them to recognize their identity as AI collaborators and focus on in-role tasks, thereby reducing cyberloafing. Moreover, the research suggested that openness served as a moderating factor, further amplifying the positive relationship between human–AI collaboration and AI identity. Specifically, employees who exhibit higher levels of openness are more likely to demonstrate heightened AI identity and reduced cyberloafing. Conversely, employees with low openness exhibit less AI identity and more cyberloafing. This research employs SIT in the context of AI collaboration, thereby providing a theoretical foundation and practical guidance for reducing employee cyberloafing in the workplace and promoting organizational development.

Developing Cloud-Based Cyber Capacity Building Platforms

Creating and maintaining an effective cybersecurity workforce is a significant challenge for organizations due to the complexity of the cyberspace domain. Military organizations especially have problems due to the transitory nature of personnel and retention challenges. The Integrated Multinational Cyber Information Sharing and Training Environment (IMCITE) is a system that facilitates organizational development using a learning management system, organic and government-off-the-shelf training materials, hands-on cyber training labs, large-scale cyber exercises, and information sharing with other organizations. Additionally, IMCITE incorporates learning plans and competency frameworks to track training effectiveness and ensure alignment with training goals, enabling targeted and measurable training initiatives to help identify skill gaps, streamline career progression, and improve workforce readiness. In this paper, we will discuss the technical and other challenges involved with developing, deploying, maintaining, and training in the use of such a system.

Sustainable organizational adaptation: Private higher education's strategic response to emerging challenges

This study analyzes organizational development and change approaches based on private higher education institutions (HEIs) responding to COVID-19 encounters. Through case studies and stakeholder interviews, it pinpoints four key factors: organizational adaptation, faculty role redefinition, digital transformation, and sustainability. Remarkably, sustainability emerges as a critical aspect, integrating environmental, social, and economic considerations into strategies. These include lowering environmental impact, fostering social equity, and safeguarding economic resilience. The study highlights the importance of understanding HEIs' responses to crises and their effect on organizational development. The understanding of the study can inform policymakers and administrators, enhancing crisis management and organizational strategies for greater resilience. By assimilating sustainability into these strategies, HEIs can align with global agendas like the UN Sustainable Development Goals, contributing to a sustainable future for higher education.

ВДОСКОНАЛЕННЯ МЕТОДИКИ УПРАВЛІННЯ ПРОЕКТАМИ В ХАРЧОВІЙ ПРОМИСЛОВОСТІ НА ОСНОВІ ПІДХОДІВ AGILE

Agile frameworks have proven their effectiveness and importance and have become a standard in the IT industry. Unfortunately, domestic business ignores this project management toolkit, ignoring its significant methodological and practical potential. This is primarily due to the great resistance to adopting a new philosophy and method at the top management level, inertia of thinking and lack of understanding of the scope of flexible technologies in the context of already established and working organizational and technological processes. The entrenched mechanistic bureaucracy as a traditional form of organizing business processes in the food industry is justified in a stable exogenous and endogenous environment. But in the face of shocks and uncertainty, this structure is inefficient and inappropriate. This is especially true for project activities, which by definition is an open system that involves changes and requires a more flexible approach, constructive interaction and involvement of participants at all levels. The aim of the research: is to substantiate the need to improve the project management methodology in the context of the functioning of food industry enterprises on the basis of Agile frameworks. The subject of the research: is the operational and project activities of food industry enterprises in a dynamic environment. The methods of the research: The theoretical basis of this study is the scientific works of domestic and foreign scientists on project management, operational management, organizational development and adaptive management systems. The study used a set of general scientific methods: an interdisciplinary approach; analysis and synthesis to generalize theoretical approaches to the use of Agile in management; a systematic approach to consider the food industry enterprise as a complex socio-economic system; comparative analysis to identify differences between traditional and Agile management methods. The hypothesis of the research: The implementation of Agile frameworks in the project management practices of food industry enterprises will enhance their adaptability, efficiency, and coordination of stakeholders in a dynamic and uncertain socio-economic environment, provided that organizational, cultural, and technological barriers are addressed through tailored adaptation of these frameworks. The statement of basic materials: The article presents the author's systematic generalization of the historical prerequisites for the emergence and evolution of the Agile methodology and the trends of its development in the modern changing environment. Based on the results of the analysis, the most common Agile frameworks are identified, their functional features and areas of appropriate application are highlighted. Special attention is paid to the current state of implementation of agile management approaches in food industry enterprises, identified typical problems and barriers that arise in the process of their integration into operational and project activities. Promising directions for further research have been identified, in particular in terms of adapting existing frameworks to the specifics of the food industry and overcoming structural and organizational barriers to implementation. The originality and practical significance of the research: The vector of possible implementation of Agile approaches at food industry enterprises in operational and project activities is determined. The studied experience of foreign and domestic examples of implementation of frameworks and Agile transformation processes at food industry enterprises allowed empirically substantiate the positive impact of agile approaches on increasing the adaptability of enterprises in conditions of fluctuation of socio-economic systems.

A Study on Leadership Challenges and Its Impact on Organizational Effectiveness with Special Reference to the Higher Education Sector of Uttar Pradesh

This study examines leadership challenges and their implications for the effective functioning of higher education institutions (HEIs) in Uttar Pradesh, India. It investigates the relationship between leadership practices and organizational efficiency within the context of a rapidly evolving higher education landscape. Employing a mixed-methods approach, the research integrates quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews with academic heads and key stakeholders to identify critical leadership issues and assess their impact on institutional performance. The findings reveal significant correlations between specific leadership challenges and organizational outcomes, underscoring the pivotal role of leadership in institutional success. The study concludes with practical recommendations for enhancing leadership capacities in HEIs, contributing to the broader discourse on educational leadership and organizational development in the Indian higher education sector.

The Role of Strategic Leadership in Enhancing Innovation Performance in the Jordan Pharmaceutical Industry

Research on strategic leadership and innovation performance is well established, yet the dynamics within the highly regulated and innovation- driven pharmaceutical industry remain underexplored. This study addresses this gap by examining how strategic leadership influences innovation performance in Jordan’s pharmaceutical manufacturing sector. A survey was conducted among 500 managers across 12 pharmaceutical manufacturing companies in Jordan to investigate these relationships. The data was analyzed using regression statistics to evaluate the strength and nature of the connections between strategic leadership dimensions and innovation performance. The findings confirm that strategic direction setting, human capital development, organizational control development, and strategic implementation are all critical drivers of innovation performance. These dimensions enhance innovation across multiple business areas, such as product development, process efficiency, and marketing strategies, thereby improving organizational competitiveness. Strategic leadership emerges as a vital enabler in the dynamic pharmaceutical landscape by fostering adaptability to market changes, addressing customer demands, and ensuring long-term sustainability. This study provides a framework for measuring the impact of strategic leadership on innovation performance in pharmaceutical manufacturing companies. It contributes to the existing literature by expanding our understanding of leadership’s role in driving innovation and offers valuable managerial implications for achieving sustainable growth through enhanced innovation practices.

Organizational Culture as a Predictor of Job Satisfaction: The Case of Public Hospitals Governed Under Addis Ababa City Administration Health Bureau

<i>Back ground</i>: This study investigates the influence of organizational culture on employee job satisfaction within public hospitals administered by the Addis Ababa City Administration Health Bureau (AACAHB) in Ethiopia. The research is conducted by Employing a cross-sectional, quantitative research design, data were collected through structured questionnaires distributed to a sample of 420 employees, yielding a response rate of 98.81%. The study draws on Cameron and Quinn's Competing Values Framework (CVF), which identifies four culture types—Clan, Adhocracy, Market, and Hierarchy—each with distinct attributes impacting organizational dynamics and job satisfaction. Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses, including Pearson correlation and regression, were conducted using SPSS 26. Findings reveal that Market culture is the dominant culture within AACAHB hospitals, characterized by competitiveness, results orientation, and a strong focus on innovation. This culture, along with other types, is positively correlated with job satisfaction, with the strongest associations observed for Market and Clan cultures. The overall job satisfaction mean score of 3.71 indicates a generally positive satisfaction level among employees. These results suggest that fostering a balanced cultural environment that incorporates elements of both performance-driven and collaborative cultures could enhance employee satisfaction. The study’s insights offer valuable implications for organizational development strategies aimed at cultivating a supportive and effective workplace culture within AACAHB hospitals.

How do employees interact in routine change? High-involvement work practices at Tencent

PurposeThis study aims to explore the interactive mechanisms between high-involvement work practices (HIWPs) and employee engagement and their impact on the process of organizational routine updating.Design/methodology/approachThis study adopts an inductive longitudinal single-case study method. By collecting data from literature and conducting employee interviews, it examines routine elements such as organizational participation in design, employee responses and behavioral interaction patterns and it conducts a qualitative analysis of the organizational routine updating process in the case enterprise.FindingsThis study shows that the interaction structure of HIWPs–employee engagement is the main antecedent of organizational routine updating. This interaction structure determines employee behavior and impacts organizational routine updating. Therefore, this study proposes a theoretical framework of “structure-behavior-organizational routine updating.” Under the HIWPs–employee engagement interaction structure, interactive behaviors among employees are generated, in which proactive behaviors can lead to adaptive behaviors of other employees, promoting more employees to participate in the company’s organizational change and development at a deeper level and facilitating the changeover between old and new practices in the company.Research limitations/implicationsThe limitation of this study is its focus on a single case, which may reduce the generalizability of the findings. Future research could expand the sample size and conduct multi-case studies to validate the results. Furthermore, data collection primarily relied on interviews and secondhand information, which may be subject to potential biases and limitations. Future studies should integrate quantitative data to enhance the objectivity and reliability of the research.Practical implicationsThis study provides strategic support and actionable insights for organizations aiming to achieve efficient transformation in the digital era. Organizations should implement HIWPs to stimulate employee agency and facilitate organizational routine updating through open communication channels, diverse incentives and effective career development support.Originality/valueBased on structuration theory, this study examines the dynamic, mutual-construction relationship between HIWPs and employee engagement in organizational routine updating. Using the “Structure-Behavior-Organizational Routine Updating” framework, this study analyzes and summarizes the triple-interaction structure, uncovers the behavioral interaction mechanisms driving organizational routine updates and unveils the “black box” of HIWPs and organizational routine updating.

Institutional status and support for campus-community partnerships in Austrian higher education: exploring faculty perceptions of implementation and challenges

Amidst growing expectations for higher education institutions (HEIs) to address societal challenges through multi-perspective educational and research activities, this study examines the institutional status and level of support for campus-community partnerships (CCPs) at Austrian HEIs. By leveraging a survey conducted among 107 university teachers, the research explores the current perception and implementation of CCPs in the academic landscape. The findings indicate that the integration of CCPs is deeply intertwined with the organizational framework of HEIs, highlighting that while campus-community partnerships are seen as valuable for enhancing the educational experience and community as well as for organizational development, they remain largely unsupported by the necessary institutional structures and formal processes. The study concludes with recommendations for improving the design and framework of CCPs to better meet the evolving demands of higher education engagement with societal challenges, and suggests a more structured approach to institutionalizing these partnerships, taking into account the specific organizational context for implementing effective collaborations.

Supporting Employees’ wellbeing: Exploring the Perspectives of Filipino Wellbeing Coaches and Implications for Workplace Interventions

The importance of wellbeing in the workplace is to promote wellness within the organization and to protect individuals' wellbeing. The study interviewed three wellbeing coaches, selected based on their professional licenses, and extensive field experience in coaching, with at least two years of counseling practice. Purposive sampling was employed to improve data accuracy and relevance selecting experienced individuals to ensure valuable perspectives. Using deductive thematic analysis, Filipino wellbeing coaches present their experiences, and the study used four predetermined key themes following the (ICF) Core Competencies Model which includes foundation, co-creating the relationship, communicating effectively, and cultivating learning and growth. In addition, the key themes were supported by eight sub-themes from the same model. The study discovered that wellbeing coaches provide psychological wellness strategies, implement interventions that integrate various tools and approaches to meet client needs while adhering to ethical practices, and provide continuous individual support which can substantially strengthen organizational efficacy. Wrike (2024) mentioned that organizational development interventions help to improve efficiency and boost employee engagement and satisfaction. Personalized support plans can be created, which may increase engagement, foster a strong culture, and promote innovation. In addition, integrating mental health and wellbeing programs, such as counseling services, stress management workshops, and wellness initiatives, benefits employees' mental health, resulting in increased resiliency. Future studies should include longitudinal studies to evaluate the long-term impact of personalized support plans and diverse tools on employee performance and organizational outcomes. Comparative analysis of different instruments and approaches can provide insights into which methods are most effective.

Sufficient Organizational Size as a Prerequisite to Adequate Organizational Structure and Process

This article presented information to demonstrate that sufficient organizational size leads to the formation of adequate organizational structure with hierarchal levels and departmentalization. The hierarchy and departmentalization precipitate the formation of organizational process which include the development of the chain and unity of command, span of control, and delegation (empowerment) all of which lead to organizational development. The author in this article demonstrated that sufficient organizational size (capacity) leads to the formation of adequate organizational structure with hierarchal levels and departmentalization. Structural organizational capacity was defined in this work in terms of size (space volume) that includes the total number of persons employed in an organization. Organizational size is an important contingency variable in macro-organizational studies that can affect an organization’s knowledge management strategy, processes, and performance. The hierarchal levels and departmentalization precipitate the formation of organizational process which include the development of the chain and unity of command, span of control, and delegation (empowerment) all of which lead to organizational development (OD). OD is a pre-planned process that emanates from the highest level of the organizational hierarchy and whose aim is to augment the effectiveness and efficiency of organizational operations. Organizational size impacts upon the developmental process of organizations and has a direct effect on organizational performance and learning. The organizational structure was defined as a stable framework which depicts how the human and non-human elements in it are arranged and grouped. An adequate organizational structure allows the creation of a scalar design that consists of the executives, general managers, managers, and supervisors. The adequately formed hierarchal levels allow the formation and function of departments and divisions which denote how job activities are clustered together. Chain of Command was stated as the cascading process from the top hierarchy to the lowest one and depicts scalar accountability (a two- dimensional vertical movement), and responsibility in each level. Span of control denoted the number of persons in lower positions a supervisor is responsible for; it is a vertical relationship between the two levels. Delegation was defined as the downward movement of authority and responsibility that enables the recipients to assume responsible positions when promotional opportunities take place.