During the last two decades, the micronucleus (MN) test has been extensively used as a genotoxicity screening tool of chemicals and in a variety of exploratory and mechanistic investigations. The MN is a biomarker for chromosomal damage or mitotic abnormalities since it can originate from chromosome fragments or whole chromosomes that fail to be incorporated into daughter nuclei during mitosis (Fenech et al, Mutagenesis 26: 125-132, 2011; Kirsch-Volders et al. Arch Toxicol 85: 873-899, 2011). The simplicity of scoring, accuracy, amenability to automation by image analysis or flow cytometry and the readiness to be applied to a variety of cell types either in vitro or in vivo, made it a versatile tool that contributed to a large extent in our understanding of key toxicological issues related to genotoxins and their effects at the cellular and organism levels. The final acceptance of the in vitro MN test Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) guideline 487 [Guideline for testing of chemicals: in vitro mammalian cell micronucleus test 487: in vitro mammalian cell micronucleus test (MNVIT). Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, 2010) together with the standard in vivo MN test OECD guideline 474 [Guideline for the testing of chemicals: mammalian erythrocyte micronucleus test. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, 1997] further positioned the assay as a key driver in the determination of the genotoxicity potential in exploratory research as well as in the regulatory environment. This book chapter will cover, to some extent, the protocol designs and experimental steps necessary for a successful performance of the MN test and an accurate analysis of the MN by the flow cytometry technique.

Mutations can take many different forms, such as chromosomal rearrangements, variations in the number of chromosomes, and gene (point) mutations. These changes can be found in both mammalian and bacterial cells, frequently by microscopic examination or growth needs. To ensure safety, it is crucial to evaluate a chemical's mutagenic potential. One popular technique in toxicology is the Ames test. This bacterial gene mutation assay, created by Bruce N. Ames in 1975, is robust, dependable, and reasonably priced. To discover reverse mutations that restore their capacity to generate critical amino acids, it uses strains of Salmonella typhimurium or Escherichia coli that have been modified to be amino acid-dependent. The plate incorporation assay and the preincubation assay are the two main methods used in the Ames test. While the preincubation assay necessitates a preparatory incubation step before plating, the plate integration method mixes the test substance with bacteria and an S9 metabolic activation system before plating. By assessing the development of revertant colonies, these assays shed light on the mutagenic qualities of substances. Standardized procedures have been set up by international regulatory organizations like the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and International Council for Harmonization (ICH) to guarantee uniformity in mutagenicity evaluations. The test makes use of particular bacterial strains that are intended to identify various changes, such as frameshift and base-pair substitution mutations. The Ames test continues to be a fundamental component of genetic toxicology, aiding in the assessment of industrial chemicals, medicines, and environmental agents by offering a trustworthy screening method for chemical mutagenicity.

Toxicological evaluation of entricitabine and tenofovir disoproxyl fumarate, isolated and mixture, in cyanobacteria and microalgae.

Application of error-corrected sequencing technologies for in vivo regulatory mutagenicity assessment.

The in vitro mouse lymphoma assay cell (MLA) is one of the most widely practiced assays in genetic toxicology. MLA detects forward mutations at the thymidine kinase (Tk) locus of the L5178Y (Tk+/- 3.7.2C) cell line derived from a mouse thymic lymphoma. This assay is capable of detecting a wide range of genetic events including point mutations, deletions (intragenic) and multilocus, chromosomal rearrangements, mitotic recombination and non-disjunction. There are two equally accepted versions of the assay, one using soft agar cloning and the second method using liquid media cloning in 96-microwell plates. There are two morphologically distinct types of mutant colonies recovered in the MLA: small and large colony mutants. The induction of small colony mutants is associated with chemicals inducing gross chromosomal aberrations whereas the induction of large mutant colonies is generally associated with chemicals inducing point mutations. The source and karyotype of the cell line as well as the culture conditions are important variables that could influence the assay performance. The assay when performed according to the standards recommended by the International Workshops on Genotoxicity Testing (IWGT) and the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development Test Guideline 490 is capable of providing valuable genotoxicity hazard information as part of the overall safety assessment process of various classes of test substances.

The suicide mortality rate for women in South Korea was the highest among Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development countries in 2021. Middle-aged women face heightened vulnerability due to sociocultural stressors and interpersonal factors influencing suicidal behavior. This study aimed to examine the effect of interpersonal needs and attitudes toward suicide on suicidal risk among middle-aged Korean women. This study utilized a cross-sectional descriptive design. Participants were recruited from communities between September 1 and October 5, 2024. Suicidal risk, interpersonal needs, depression, and attitudes toward suicide were measured using the Suicidal Behavior Questionnaire, the Interpersonal Needs Questionnaire, the Patient Health Questionnaire-9, and the Attitudes Towards Suicide Scale, respectively. The data collected through online surveys were analyzed using SPSS version 26.0. Among 301 female participants, the mean age was 52.5 (SD = 5.6) years old, and 65.8% (n = 198) of them resided in urban areas. Residence area (β = 0.27, P < .001), perceived mental health status (β = 0.13, P = .017), perceived burdensomeness (β = 0.14, P = .020), and attitudes toward suicide (β = 0.05, P < .001) explained 28.6% of variance (F = 14.27, P < .001) on suicide risk. Urban residence, perceived poor mental health, and maladaptive attitudes toward suicide are key determinants of suicidal risk among middle-aged Korean women. Findings emphasize the need for a comprehensive suicide risk assessment addressing psychological distress and sociocultural perceptions to enhance suicide prevention.

Canadas carbon pricing system is one of the most ambitious national efforts to balance environmental sustainability with economic growth and fairness. Established under the Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act (GGPPA) in 2018, the federal carbon tax sets a standard price for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions across provinces. It aims to account for environmental costs and encourage clean innovation. However, this policy has developed in a politically and economically challenging environment marked by regional differences, reliance on energy, and debates over the constitution. This paper looks at the political economy of Canadas carbon tax from two main perspectives: (1) its economic effects on national competitiveness, industry structure, and family welfare; and (2) its political aspects, including federalprovincial relations, public opinion, and policy legitimacy. Using data from Statistics Canada, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), this study examines how carbon pricing affects GDP growth, inflation, and distribution outcomes from 2018 to 2025. The findings show that Canadas carbon tax has led to significant emissions reductions and ongoing green investment, with minimal negative effects on GDP. Still, the policy remains politically delicate, reflecting deeper issues in Canadas federal system and energy landscape. By exploring the connection between economics and politics in carbon pricing, this paper argues that Canadas experience provides valuable insights for managing fairness, environmental responsibilities, and political stability in climate policy.

Japan's addiction landscape appears paradoxical. The lifetime use of illicit drugs is among the lowest in Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development countries, but harm from alcohol, tobacco, and gambling ranks among the world's highest. Historically, methamphetamine accounted for the majority of drug-related offenses, but the number of people who were apprehended for cannabis offenses in 2023 exceeded the number who were apprehended for stimulants for the first time since 1958. Nevertheless, the lifetime prevalence of illicit drug use among adults remains under ~3%. In contrast, heavy drinking among working-age men, decades of tobacco consumption, and rapid digitalization that has more recently led to a surge in online gambling and gaming disorder have imposed a substantial disease burden. The present review discusses Japan's epidemiology, social impact, policy changes, prevention, and treatment infrastructure of drug-related problems and the latest trends in addiction science and proposes ways to link policy and research. Japan's experience, balancing strict enforcement with health-centered care, may offer lessons for regions that have similar social contexts.

BackgroundIn many Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, hospital nursing care is comprehensively provided by professional nurses and multidisciplinary teams, with no reliance on family companions. By contrast, China has historically depended on family caregivers at the bedside, a practice shaped both by deep-rooted cultural traditions of filial piety and by persistent nursing workforce shortages. With the introduction of the Hospital No-Companion Care Service Pilot Work Plan (2025-2027), China is entering a critical reform phase aimed at transitioning from informal family-dependent caregiving toward a more institutionalized, standardized, and professionalized hospital nursing model.MethodsThis study employed a comparative policy analysis combined with a narrative literature review. The review followed PRISMA guidelines for transparent literature selection and applied Walt & Gilson's Policy Triangle Framework to examine policy context, content, processes, and actors. Sources included PubMed, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), World Health Organization (WHO), and Chinese government policy documents, ensuring both international and domestic perspectives were incorporated.ResultsFindings indicate that China's model addresses demographic aging and nursing shortages through hybrid approaches combining nurses with supervised assistants. Compared with OECD systems, China faces lower nurse density (2.9 vs. 9.2 per 1,000) and lower nurse-to-bed ratios (0.6:1 vs. 1.4:1). Preliminary pilot outcomes suggest notable improvements in patient safety, fall prevention, and satisfaction levels. However, they also reveal ongoing financing challenges, regulatory gaps, and varying degrees of cultural acceptance among patients and families, reflecting the tension between traditional caregiving norms and new institutional practices.ConclusionChina's no-companion model is both an innovative reform and a transitional stage in health system transformation. Long-term sustainability requires systematic investment in expanding nurse education, gradual integration of no-companion services into medical insurance coverage, and deliberate efforts to foster cultural adaptation through patient and family engagement strategies. China's experience offers lessons for low- and middle-income countries seeking professionalized care models under resource constraints, highlighting how institutional restructuring can respond to workforce shortages while respecting cultural contexts. This study provides policy insights into how professional nursing reform can balance workforce capacity, cultural expectations, and institutional accountability in the context of China's hospital no-companion care initiative.

Complicated urinary tract infections (cUTIs) are ubiquitous, associated with healthcare resources, and demand effective antibiotic treatment to prevent clinical failure and relapse. Evidence on health economic implications of treatment options remains limited. Recent studies have shown that cefepime/enmetazobactam was superior to piperacillin/tazobactam regarding the combined endpoints clinical cure and microbiological eradication, the latter being closely linked to reduced relapse rates. Therefore, we perform a health economic evaluation of cefepime/enmetazobactam vs. piperacillin/tazobactam for cUTI from a German payer perspective. To assess monetary impacts of both therapies, we conducted a semi-structured literature review for costs of (relapsed) cUTI. Subsequently, we adjusted international costs to the German healthcare system using European price levels of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. These built the basis of a comparative health economic analysis using a decision tree incorporating outcome probabilities and relapse rates for both antibiotics. Lastly, we validated the analysis using publicly available remuneration data from German hospitals. Literature revealed international costs of €5,394 and €6,675 per patient without and with clinical relapse, converting to €5,137.14 and €6,357.14 in Germany, respectively. Considering the probability of occurrence of clinical cure, microbiological persistence, and relapse rates, average treatment costs per patient for cefepime/enmetazobactam amount to €5,332.12 compared to €5,414.83 for piperacillin/tazobactam. The analysis shows that a higher probability of relapse after antibiotic therapy might be associated with an increase in treatment costs within the German healthcare system. Although per-patient cost differences between cefepime/enmetazobactam and piperacillin/tazobactam are moderate, their cumulative impact at the population level could be substantial, emphasizing the broader health-economic relevance of treatment choice for cUTI.

This article addresses selected issues concerning the formulation and implementation of public policies on aging both at the global and regional levels. Selected key initiatives undertaken by the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations (UN), and the European Union (EU) are discussed. The article further examines three distinct models of aging policy as exemplified by Norway, Lithuania, and Poland. These countries share commonalities, including very high rates of demographic aging and membership in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). However, each nation adopts a different model of social policy, consequently reflecting diverse models of senior citizen support. The research aims to elucidate the determinants and impacts of social policies targeting a particularly vulnerable segment of the population—older adults requiring long-term services and support. Central to this investigation is the comparative analysis of general characteristics distinguishing the different national models. This was achieved through a synthesis and evaluation of selected quantitative and qualitative indicators. Methodologically, the study utilizes expert interviews, comprehensive literature reviews, secondary analyses of international and national statistical data, including data from Eurostat and OECD databases, European Commission policy documents, and an extensive review of grey literature encompassing pertinent Internet sources. Findings reveal marked differences in the design and execution of aging policies across the three countries, highlighting variations in how the welfare function of the state is operationalized in addressing the needs of the elderly.

Human biomonitoring (HBM) complements air and surface measurements by integrating exposure from all routes and sources, strengthening occupational exposure assessment and control. In occupational settings, HBM can quantify exposure during routine work and nonroutine activities, evaluate controls, investigate incidents (potential overexposures), and support medical surveillance. To use HBM to its full potential, occupational health and safety professionals (OHPs) should adopt harmonized biomonitoring approaches reflecting best practice. This short communication presents the BASIC Guide series (Human Biomonitoring and Surveillance of Chemical Exposure in Occupational Settings), initiated by the International Society of Exposure Science Human Biomonitoring working group (ISES Europe HBM WG) as an integral part of the HBM Global Network. These chemical-specific practical documents operationalize the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) occupational biomonitoring guidance, supporting the consistent implementation of exposure biomonitoring programs. Each BASIC Guide provides clear instructions on biomarker selection, sample handling, analytical methods, quality assurance, and result interpretation and communication. By translating international frameworks into actionable protocols, the BASIC Guides improve reproducibility and regulatory alignment in occupational HBM and enable more defensible exposure assessments worldwide.

Purpose: To provide an integrated overview of current approaches for detecting and characterizing endo­crine activity in chemicals by em­phasizing the relationship between mechanistic in vitro assays, in vivo models, and regulatory frameworks. Methods: Recent developments in high-throughput screening (HTS) platforms, validated Organisation for Economic Co-operation and De­velopment (OECD) test guidelines, and effect-based bioassays were crit­ically compared. The review covers representative assays for estrogen­ic, androgenic, thyroid, and ste­roidogenic pathways and evaluates the complementarity within adverse outcome pathway (AOP) frame­works. Attention was given to data integration, bioavailability consid­erations, and regulatory adoption under the European Union Regis­tration, Evaluation, Authorization, and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) and the US En­vironmental Protection Agency (EPA) Endocrine Dis­ruptor Screening Program. Results: Mechanistic assays, such as YES, E-Screen, HeLa-9903, and H295R, provide rapid, sensitive, and cost-effective screening for receptor-mediated and ste­roidogenic effects. In contrast, in vivo systems, including vitellogenin induction, Daphnia reproduction, amphib­ian metamorphosis, and zebrafish assays, yield organ­ism-level confirmation. Integrating both tiers within AOP and quantitative in vitro-to-in vivo extrapolation (QIVIVE) frameworks increases predictive reliability. Despite advances in standardization, challenges remain concerning metabolic competence, inter-laboratory variability, and harmonized effect thresholds. Conclusion: Endocrine testing science is transitioning toward mechanistically anchored, animal-reduced strat­egies that combine HTS, computational modeling, and effect-based monitoring. Harmonized validation cri­teria and performance standards will further enhance regulatory acceptance and facilitate the efficient identi­fication of substances with endocrine activity across both human health and environmental contexts.

The study analyzes the impact of healthcare financing on medical and demographic indicators in OECD countries. Based on data for the period 2015–2023, the relationship between the level of healthcare spending (per capita at purchasing power parity) and such indicators as preventable and treatable mortality, as well as life expectancy, was studied. Purpose. To analyze the relationship between the volume of healthcare financing and the health status of the population in the countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Materials and methods . A retrospective study was conducted based on statistical information the official website of the OECD Observer on health care expenditure and medical and demographic indicators of the health status of the population. Results and conclusion . The relationship between the level of healthcare financing and health indicators of the population (decrease in mortality, increase in life expectancy) was confirmed. A nonlinear dependence ng related to the initial level of financing and social conditions and the efficient allocation of resources was revealed. It was determined that the greatest effect from increasing funding was achieved in countries with initially low health care costs. A significant discrepancy in preventable mortality rates among different OECD countries was revealed, explained by differences in the organization of health care and the availability of necessary resources. The analysis showed that the COVID-19 pandemic affected the nature of the correlations between funding volumes and medical and demographic indicators, reducing the positive impact of increasing investment in health care. Increased funding for health care helps improve the availability and quality of health care, reduces overall mortality and increases life expectancy, while the effectiveness of investments depends on the initial level of funding and the characteristics of national healthcare systems.

Background/Objectives: Plants inhabiting mediterranean-influenced climatic zones, like Helichrysum stoechas (L.) Moench subsp. stoechas, Lavandula pedunculata (Mill.) Cav., and Thymus mastichina (L.) L. subsp. mastichina, have been scarcely investigated regarding their richness in phenolic compounds, herein explored as sources of skin anti-aging compounds. Methods: In this investigation, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) in attenuated total reflectance (ATR) mode and high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode-array detection and electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-ESI/MSn) were employed to chemically characterize the hydroethanolic extracts (HEs), and their cell-free antioxidant potential was screened. Thereafter, non-toxic concentrations of HEs were determined in human skin cells using Alamar blue® and Sulforhodamine B assays. The cytoprotective and antioxidant effects of HEs were assessed in tert-butyl hydroperoxide-stimulated fibroblasts, their anti-inflammatory potential was studied in lipopolysaccharide-injured macrophages, and enzymatic inhibition assays were performed. Notably, the irritant effects of HEs were tested according to Test Guideline No. 439 of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Results: The major compounds identified in the T. mastichina and L. pedunculata HEs were rosmarinic and salvianolic acid derivatives, while H. stoechas HE was mainly composed of caffeoyl and feruloyl derivatives, and O-glycosylated flavonoids. T. mastichina (≤0.4 mg/mL) exhibited significant cytoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects, as well as remarkable anti-hyaluronidase activity. Conclusions: Shedding light on the quantitative and qualitative chemical picture of these HEs highlighted T. mastichina as a promising candidate to target skin aging effects, which correlates with its phenolic content. Further investigation is warranted regarding its anti-aging pharmacological activity, which could lead to the development of plant-based skin anti-aging products.

The global economy developing in the contemporary context may be characterized by ever-increasing national and international inequality. In an inherently unequal development setting, consistent economic growth is impossible; whereas inclusive development provides for a transition to less imbalances and financial benefits distributed to all population groups based on a more equitable principle of non-discrimination. This paper discusses approaches to assessing inclusive sustainable development currently used by some international organizations and the importance of healthcare factors in such methods. It focuses on reviews the approaches developed as part of the projects implemented by the United Nations, the World Bank, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the Asian Development Bank, the World Economic Forum, and the Eurasian Economic Union. This work aimed to investigate the methods used by international organizations to assess the national inclusive development, and determine the importance of healthcare factors in the studied methods. The methods used by international organizations to assess the national inclusive development were studied by analyzing the available publications, including scientific works (n = 11), regulations (n = 1), and policy documents (n = 14). The study was conducted in 2024 at the Institute of Social Sciences of Sechenov University. Most international organizations describe possible approaches to economic inclusion assessment in their documents. Although the concept of inclusive development seems quite simple, international organizations and associations do not use a single definition of or generally accepted measurement methods. The analysis shows that, despite the differences in the interpretation of the inclusive development concept and the use of various methods to assess inclusion, access to healthcare services, with rare exceptions (e.g., the method used by the International Monetary Fund), is one of the most significant factor in the analyzed methods due to its direct influence on the general wellbeing of the nation.

Community pharmacists are expanding their practice to provide more consumer-focused professional services to support rising healthcare demands. Despite strong evidence supporting the benefits of pharmacist-led services, their uptake remains inconsistent. This review examines the factors that affect the implementation of community pharmacist-led professional services. A scoping review of studies published between 2005 and 2024 was conducted using the PRISMA guidelines. Inclusion criteria focused on studies assessing stakeholder experiences of implemented services. Study quality was assessed using the Mixed-Method Appraisal Tool (MMAT). Thematic synthesis was applied to extract and categorize key findings. Thirty-six studies were included in the final analysis. Fifteen were based in European countries, 12 in Oceanic regions, and eight in North America. Time constraints, workload pressures, general practitioner resistance, limited consumer awareness, and remuneration concerns hindered implementation. Facilitators included clear role definitions, motivated staff, structured service delivery models, enhanced collaboration with healthcare professionals, and financial incentives. Community pharmacists have the potential to provide expanded professional services and practise to their full scope to enhance healthcare accessibility and patient outcomes. Multilevel approaches that address logistic, collaborative, systematic, and financial challenges are needed. Future research should focus on large-scale evaluations and long-term impacts to build a stronger evidence base for pharmacist-led professional services.

The New Variant Assessment Platform (NVAP) was a global genomic surveillance programme established by the UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA) in April 2021. The NVAP offered sequencing and biological assessment capabilities, technical assistance, and training to support the detection and assessment of new variants of SARS-CoV-2 and other high-priority pathogens globally. We present findings from a rapid evaluation of the NVAP. A mixed-method evaluation was conducted between June and November 2023 using a framework published by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). A review of the NVAP documentation, online surveys with partners and programme informants, and structured interviews with strategic informants were undertaken. Survey data was analysed using descriptive statistics, and interview data and the NVAP documentation were analysed thematically. Survey responses were received from 31/46 partners (67%) and structured interviews were conducted with 11/13 strategic stakeholders (85%). Partners provided evidence that the programme had met its overarching objectives. The NVAP enabled partners to start undertaking genomic surveillance or strengthened their existing capabilities. The importance of maintaining the global genomic surveillance capabilities developed during the COVID-19 pandemic and promoting ongoing programme sustainability in an evolving global genomic surveillance landscape was a recurring theme. Further themes included developing a pathogen agnostic approach, strengthening collaborations, promoting data sharing, and enhancing aspects of the NVAP offer. The NVAP achieved its overarching objectives, and qualitative findings showed it was responsive to stakeholder needs. The programme closed on 31 March 2024 following public health management of COVID-19 aligning to other common respiratory illnesses. We recommend that global health stakeholders should build resilient and adaptive surveillance systems, ensuring rapid detection and response to future health threats. Future research should focus on the longer-term utility and sustainability of global genomic surveillance initiatives and programmes.

Background: Bacteria affecting the cutaneous-digestive and oral spheres, causing pain, inflammation and sometimes serious complications such as septicemia, are exacerbated by the emergence of new antibiotic-resistant strains. The World Health Organization (WHO) encourages the use of medicinal plants to treat diseases caused by antibiotic-resistant pathogens; however, this practice should be supported by a proper scientific validation. Objective: This study sought to evaluate in vitro antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of extracts from Commelina benghalensis and Senna alata. The crude extracts from C. benghalensis and S. alata by maceration in ethanol. This was followed by a liquid-liquid partitioning of the extracts using hexane, ethyl acetate and n-butanol to yield respective fractions. The as prepared extracts and fractions were evaluated for antibacterial activity against a panel of bacteria, such as Escherichia coli (reference strain) and S. aureus CPC, E. coli CPC, E. faecalis and S. mutans (3 clinical isolates) using a broth microdilution method. The phytochemical screening of C. benghalensis and S. alata extracts were determined using standard protocols. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of extracts were assessed using standard methods. The acute toxicity of the most promising antibacterial extract was performed according to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)’s guideline, protocole number 423. Results: The yields of extraction for the ethanol extracts from C. benghalensis and S. alata were found to be 4.94% and 10.25%, respectively. The plant extracts were found to be rich in flavonoids, terpenoids and steroids, and phenolics. The plant extracts exhibited antibacterial activity with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) ranging from 0.3125 to 2.5 mg/mL. Irrespective of the protocol used, the extracts displayed significant antioxidant activity with mean radical scavenging concentrations (SC50s) ranging from 30.09 to 500 µg/mL. The plant extracts revealed anti-inflammatory activity with mean inhibitory concentration (IC50) values ranging from 24.9 to 113.1 µg/mL. Upon acute toxicity study, the median lethal dose (LD50) of the most promising antibacterial extract was found to be greater than 2000 mg/kg. Conclusion: This study demonstrates antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of extracts C. benghalensis and S. alata, thus validating the traditional use of these plants in treating infectious diseases.

Focal organizations are under threat, with their central position challenged by states and rival institutions. However, this is not unprecedented. Even in relatively hierarchical complexes, focal organizations have historically faced challenges. The article examines the postwar trade complex as a case in point. Drawing on new theoretical insights, it shows how the focal General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was challenged from rival institutional actors from its inception. The article explores how GATT countered these challengers through tailored strategies, enabling it to expand its initially limited focality and solidify its position as the centerpiece of international trade governance by the last quarter of the twentieth century. The article makes three contributions. First, it provides a new perspective on focality, emphasizing the dynamic nature of this notion and its analytical potential. Second, it explores how and why three institutions – the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC, later the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)), and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) – challenged GATT’s focality during the postwar decades. Finally, it shows how GATT successfully navigated these challenges by employing different strategic responses over time.