Oreopithecus Research Articles

Insights into the lower torso in late Miocene hominoid Oreopithecus bambolii

Oreopithecus bambolii (8.3-6.7 million years old) is the latest known hominoid from Europe, dating to approximately the divergence time of the Pan-hominin lineages. Despite being the most complete nonhominin hominoid in the fossil record, the O. bambolii skeleton IGF 11778 has been, for decades, at the center of intense debate regarding the species' locomotor behavior, phylogenetic position, insular paleoenvironment, and utility as a model for early hominin anatomy. Here we investigate features of the IGF 11778 pelvis and lumbar region based on torso preparations and supplemented by other O. bambolii material. We correct several crucial interpretations relating to the IGF 11778 anterior inferior iliac spine and lumbar vertebrae structure and identifications. We find that features of the early hominin Ardipithecus ramidus torso that are argued to have permitted both lordosis and pelvic stabilization during upright walking are not present in O. bambolii However, O. bambolii also lacks the complete reorganization for torso stiffness seen in extant great apes (i.e., living members of the Hominidae), and is more similar to large hylobatids in certain aspects of torso form. We discuss the major implications of the O. bambolii lower torso anatomy and how O. bambolii informs scenarios of hominoid evolution.

FOSSO DELLA FITTAIA: THE OLDEST TUSCO-SARDINIAN LATE MIOCENE ENDEMIC VERTEBRATE ASSEMBLAGES (BACCINELLO-CINIGIANO BASIN, TUSCANY, ITALY)

The late Miocene continental successions of the Baccinello-Cinigiano basin (Grosseto), one of the longest and most continuous vertebrate-bearing continental successions in the Neogene Italian record, yielded at least four superimposed vertebrate assemblages bracketed in the time span 8.3 - 6.4 Ma. The Baccinello-Cinigiano basin is famous for recording endemic vertebrate assemblages that include the youngest European Miocene hominoid, Oreopithecus bambolii . The late Miocene endemic vertebrate fauna known as the Baccinello V0 assemblage is the oldest vertebrate fauna within the Baccinello-Cinigiano basin succession, being correlated to the European mammal Neogene unit MN11. Recent field surveys along the Trasubbie river allowed studying in detail the basal Baccinello-Cinigiano sedimentary succession, and sampling fossiliferous level bearing microvertebrates along the small creek Fosso della Fittaia. The sample “Fosso della Fittaia 2013” yielded about 170 fossil remains improving our documentation of the oldest vertebrate assemblages from the Baccinello-Cinigian basin. As far as rodents are concerned, in addition to the already recognized murid Huerzelerimys and glirid Anthracoglis , a few dental remains are assigned to a new genus and species of giant dormouse. It is further worth noting the occurrence in the sample of shrew remains (the first described from the Baccinello-Cinigiano basin) identified as cf. Lartetium . The latter attests the presence of a crocidosoricine in the Fosso della Fittaia 2013 assemblage, postdating the youngest known occurrences of the subfamily by at least 1 my. The vertebrate assemblage is completed by a diverse herpetofauna and the first fish remains reported from the basin.

Understanding climate's influence on the extinction of Oreopithecus (late Miocene, Tusco-Sardinian paleobioprovince, Italy)

Despite its long history of scientific study, the causes underlying the extinction of the insular hominoid Oreopithecus bambolii are still a matter of ongoing debate. While some authors consider intense tectonism and invading species the cause of its extinction ca. 6.7 Ma, others propose climatic change as the main contributing factor. We rely on long-term patterns of tooth wear and hypsodonty of the Baccinello and Fiume Santo herbivore-faunas to reconstruct changes in habitat prior to, during and after the extinction. While a mosaic of habitats was represented in Baccinello V1 (as shown by a record of browsers, mixed feeders and species engaged in grazing), more closed forests (higher proportion of browsers, shortage of mixed feeders and lack of grazers) characterised Baccinello V2. Finally, there was a partial loss of canopy cover and development of open-patches and low-abrasive grasses in Baccinello V3 (as denoted by new records of taxa involved in grazing)—although still dominated by a forested habitat (since browse was a component in all diets). Our results provide evidence for two perceptible shifts in climate, one between 8.1 and 7.1 Ma and other ca. 6.7 Ma, though this latter was not drastic enough to lead to intensive forest loss, substantially alter the local vegetation or affect Oreopithecus lifestyle—especially if considering the growing evidence of its versatile diet. Although the disappearance of Oreopithecus is complex, our data reject the hypothesis of environmental change as the main factor in the extinction of Oreopithecus and Maremma fauna. When our results are analysed together with other evidence, faunal interaction and predation by invading species from mainland Europe seems to be the most parsimonious explanation for this extinction event. This contrasts with European hominoid extinctions that were associated with major climatic shifts that led to environmental uniformity and restriction of the preferred habitats of Miocene apes.

‘Darwin was Wrong.’ The International Media Coverage of theOreopithecus' Reinterpretation (1956-1959)

‘Darwin was wrong’ was a headline that made news around the world in March 1956. Johannes Hürzeler, a Swiss palaeontologist, had just made public his theory that Oreopithecus bambolii, a fossil thus far classified as an extinct Old World monkey, was in fact a 12-million-year old hominid. That was 10 million years (!) older than the oldest hominids accepted at the time. Two years later he unearthed a complete skeleton of Oreopithecus in Italy. The echo of this discovery in the media was enormous yet the newspaper coverage in different western countries followed distinctive patterns. This paper will show these differences and point out possible explanations that go far beyond scientific disagreement. It will be argued that the press is a privileged source for comparing simultaneous reactions to the same scientific fact around the globe and for helping us discover national and supranational patterns of scientific discourse while linking them to their contexts. This paper also highlights the role of the news pieces as ‘supports of knowledge.’ Just like bones or scientific articles, news items circulate prompting in turn the circulation of other ‘supports of knowledge’ such as fossil remains or scientists.

Isotopic reconstructions of habitat change surrounding the extinction of Oreopithecus, the last European ape.

Oreopithecus bambolii was the last hominoid to survive in Europe. The purpose of this investigation was to reconstruct, through stable isotope analyses, Oreopithecus' habitat, subsistence behavior, and changes in habitat that may have led to its extinction. Carbon and oxygen stable isotopes from inorganic carbonate in tooth enamel from Oreopithecus and its contemporaneous faunas from localities in Tuscany and Sardinia were sampled. Also the fauna from localities in Tuscany shortly after Oreopithecus went extinct were sampled. Results indicated that Oreopithecus, compared with most modern hominoids, inhabited forests that probably had a more open canopy. At Tuscan localities, Oreopithecus yields some of the highest carbon isotope values but some of the lowest oxygen, suggesting a diet that may have included tubers or aquatic vegetation. Relatively higher oxygen values in Sardinia suggested that its diet included arboreal foods as well. Among modern and fossil hominoids, Oreopithecus only resembled chimpanzees living outside of rainforests. It also resembled Ardipithecus in carbon isotope values, suggesting possible similarities in feeding strategies concordant with shared skeletal features between Oreopithecus and early hominins. Isotope values from post-Oreopithecus faunas indicated a shift to more forested conditions, unlike other hominoid extinctions associated with loss of forest. Isotopic reconstructions of Oreopithecus' habitat and changes associated with its extinction indicated that its paleoecology was unique among hominoids. However, these reconstructions also suggested that like other hominoids, Oreopithecus was susceptible to changes in seasonality of precipitation, and it may have used wetlands as a buffer to seasonal regimes. Am J Phys Anthropol 160:254-271, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Geopalaeontological setting, chronology and palaeoenvironmental evolution of the Baccinello-Cinigiano Basin continental successions (Late Miocene, Italy)

The Latest Miocene succession of the Baccinello-Cinigiano Basin in southern Tuscany (Italy) recorded a faunal turnover documenting the extinction of an older, insular, endemic faunal complex characterised by the extinct ape Oreopithecus bambolii and the setting of a new, continental, European faunal complex including the colobine monkey Mesopithecus. A similar turnover pattern (Late Miocene ape/Latest Miocene Cercopithecidae) is generally observed in Late Miocene continental successions of Eurasia, from Spain to central Europe, Southwest Europe, the near East, and Southwest Asia. Abundant literature reports that the Late Miocene Eurasian hominoid primate distribution closely tracks the climatic/environmental changes occurring during the 12–9Ma interval, until their extinction in western Europe. In the primate record, the dispersion of Cercopithecidae and the contraction of hominids is interpreted as an event depicting a pattern of “continentalisation” in the Old World. The sedimentary succession of the Baccinello-Cinigiano basin, one of the longest continuous vertebrate-bearing continental successions in the Neogene Italian record, contributes to the debate on this hypothesis. This paper provides an overview of the main characteristics of the sedimentary succession, the chronological constraints (biochronology, radiometric datings, magnetostratigraphy), and the palaeoenvironmental evolution as derived from palaeobiological approaches and from the study of stable carbon and oxygen isotope contents along the entire sedimentary succession. The 2myr geological history of the Baccinello Cinigiano Basin, which documents the evolutionary history of Oreopithecus and associated faunas, does not have a direct relation with the event of the Messinian Salinity Crisis. The evolutionary history of Baccinello-Cinigiano Basin and its palaeontological record have been mainly driven by the regional tectonism and palaeogeographic changes that affected the northern Tyrrhenian regions in Late Miocene (Latest Tortonian–Messinian) times.

Enamel thickness and enamel growth in Oreopithecus: Combining microtomographic and histological evidence

Oreopithecus bambolii, a large-bodied fossil ape, lived in the Tusco-Sardinian archipelago during the Late Miocene, until ca. 6.7Ma. Its dentition, an apparent blend of hominoid and cercopithecoid-like features, has been a matter of discussion since its first description, in 1872. While the height and sharpness of its molar cusps recall some Cercopithecidae, Oreopithecus is currently considered by many as more likely related to dryopithecines. Here, we use microtomographic-based quantitative imaging and histological evidence to link outer and inner tooth structural morphology with enamel development in Oreopithecus permanent teeth. The material consists of 14 teeth/crowns from the sites of Baccinello and Casteani, in Tuscany, and Fiume Santo, in Sardinia. In particular, we add to the record of 2–3D of molar enamel thickness topographic variation and enamel-dentine junction morphology, and using high-resolution replicas of the outer crown and ground sections, comparatively assess molar growth trajectory (crown formation times and enamel extension rates). Our results shed new light on dental development of this “enigmatic anthropoid” and provide additional evidence concerning the still debated question of its evolutionary history.

The morphology of Oreopithecus bambolii pollical distal phalanx

Oreopithecus bambolii is a Late Miocene ape from Italy, first described in the late 19th century. Its interpretation is still highly controversial, especially in reference to its hand proportions and thumb morphology. In this study, the authors provide detailed descriptions of the available Oreopithecus pollical distal phalanx (PDP) specimens, as well as bivariate and multivariate morphometric analyses in comparison with humans, extant apes, selected anthropoid monkeys, and available Miocene PDP specimens. The multivariate results reveal two opposite poles on the hominoid PDP shape spectrum: on one side, a mediolaterally broad and dorsopalmarly short human PDP, and on the other side, the narrow and "conical" PDP of chimpanzees and orangutans. The authors contend that Oreopithecus exhibits intermediate PDP proportions that are largely primitive for hominoids because it shares morphological similarities with Proconsul. Furthermore, Oreopithecus displays a mediolaterally wide tuft for a hominoid, as well as a palmarly elevated attachment for a long tendon of a flexor muscle that is associated at its proximal edge with a proximal fossa and at its distal edge with an ungual fossa. These nonmetrical traits have been associated in humans with their capability to oppose and contact the proximal pads of the thumb and fingers, that is, pad-to-pad precision grasping. These traits reinforce previous studies that indicate a human-like thumb-to-hand length ratio compatible with pad-to-pad precision grasping in Oreopithecus. Although specific hand use is still unresolved in Oreopithecus, the results suggest enhanced manipulative skills (unrelated to stone tool-making) in this taxon relative to other (extant or fossil) hominoids.

Reevaluation of the lumbosacral region of Oreopithecus bambolii

Functional interpretations of the postcranium of the late Miocene ape Oreopithecus bambolii are controversial. The claim that Oreopithecus practiced habitual terrestrial bipedalism is partly based on restored postcranial remains originally recovered from Baccinello, Tuscany (Köhler and Moyà-Solà, 1997). The lower lumbar vertebrae of BA#72 were cited as evidence that Oreopithecus exhibits features indicative of a lordotic lumbar spine, including dorsal wedging of the vertebral bodies and a caudally progressive increase in postzygapophyseal interfacet distance. Here, we demonstrate why the dorsal wedging index value obtained by Köhler and Moyà-Solà (1997) for the BA#72 last lumbar vertebra is questionable due to distortion in that region, present a more reliable way to measure postzygapophyseal interfacet distance, and include an additional metric (laminar width) with which to examine changes in the transverse dimensions of the neural arches. We also quantify the external morphology of the BA#72 proximal sacrum, which, despite well-documented links between sacral morphology and bipedal locomotion, and excellent preservation of the sacral prezygapophyses, first sacral vertebral body, and right ala, was not evaluated by Köhler and Moyà-Solà (1997). Measures of postzygapophyseal interfacet distance and laminar width on the penultimate and last lumbar vertebrae of BA#72 reveal a pattern encompassed within the range of living nonhuman hominoids and unlike that of modern humans, suggesting that Oreopithecus did not possess a lordotic lumbar spine. Results further show that the BA#72 sacrum exhibits relatively small prezygapophyseal articular facet surface areas and mediolaterally narrow alae compared with modern humans, indicating that the morphology of the Oreopithecus sacrum is incompatible with the functional demands of habitual bipedal stance and locomotion. The Oreopithecus lumbosacral region does not exhibit adaptations for habitual bipedal locomotion.

Enamel microwear texture properties of IGF 11778 (Oreopithecus bambolii) from the late Miocene of Baccinello, Italy.

Late Miocene Oreopithecus bambolii has been posited as a folivore from its pronounced molar shearing crests. However, scanning electron microscopy yields conflicting results with one study of Oreopithecus showing folivory and another indicating a coarser diet was consumed. To address this debate, the dietary proclivities of the well-known IGF 11778 Oreopithecus bambolii specimen are reconstructed by comparing the enamel texture properties of this specimen to extant Alouatta palliata (n = 11), Cebus apella (n = 13), Gorilla gorilla (n = 9), Lophocebus albigena (n = 15), Pan troglodytes (n = 17) and Trachypithecus cristatus (n = 12). Dental microwear is captured by scanning facet 9, a Phase II facet on the hypoconid surface, using white-light confocal microscopy at 100x. The scanning was followed by scale-sensitive fractal analysis, yielding four texture characteristics. These were ranked before ANOVA with post-hoc tests of significance and multivariate analyses were conducted. Oreopithecus specimen IGF 11778 does not match any of the extant taxa consistently but in some analyses is associated with Lophocebus, and secondarily with Pan, Gorilla and Cebus outliers suggesting mixed-fruit and hard-object feeding characterized at least a portion of its diet. The partially open habitat of late Miocene Baccinello may have had resources with mechanically resistant foods, or foods found near ground level were consumed. Hard, brittle foods, insects, and or extraneous grit may have contributed to the greater use-wear complexity of the enamel surface observed in IGF 11778 compared to extant folivores. IGF 11778 does not exhibit the degree of anisotropy characterizing Trachypithecus and Alouatta. The partial resemblance of IGF 11778 to some great ape specimens may indicate intermittent extractive and or terrestrial foraging.

Carbon isotopic record of terrestrial ecosystems spanning the Late Miocene extinction of Oreopithecus bambolii, Baccinello Basin (Tuscany, Italy)

Oreopithecus bambolii is a Late Miocene hominoid with an extensive fossil record in the Baccinello Basin (Tuscany, Italy), and was the only western European hominoid to survive a major extinction event ca. 9.6 Ma (millions of years ago). Oreopithecus lived in the insular Tusco-Sardinian paleobioprovince, where it evolved many unique anatomical specializations that make it important for understanding the mechanisms and history of Late Miocene hominoid evolution. The eventual extinction of Oreopithecus and its associated fauna ca. 6.5 Ma has generally been attributed to interaction with species that arrived from continental Europe following tectonic collision of the Tusco-Sardinian province with mainland Italy, but palynological, paleontological, and sedimentological records indicate an environmental shift toward more variable climate across the extinction event.To explore the possibility of environmental change as a contributing factor in the extinction of Oreopithecus, we developed a stable carbon and oxygen isotope record from organic matter in paleosols from the Baccinello Basin. These data show very low temporal and spatial variability (indicating plant ecosystem stability through time and space) and provide no evidence for ecologically significant changes in floral composition spanning the extinction event, suggesting that environmental change was not an underlying cause for the extinction of Oreopithecus and its associated fauna. The carbon isotope values fall entirely within the range of isotopic variability for modern plants following the C3 photosynthetic pathway (trees, shrubs, cool-season grasses), indicating that C4 vegetation (warm-season grasses) was not an important component of biomass. When corrected for temporal variation in the carbon isotopic composition of atmospheric carbon dioxide, the paleosol carbon isotope values are consistent with predicted values based on modern plants and the Baccinello palynoflora, supporting the reliability of paleosol isotopic records as paleoecological proxies.

Late Miocene insular mice from the Tusco-Sardinian palaeobioprovince provide new insights on the palaeoecology of the Oreopithecus faunas

Oreopithecus bambolii is one of the few hominoids that evolved under insular conditions, resulting in the development of unique adaptations that have fueled an intensive debate. The palaeoenvironment associated with this great ape has been the subject of great controversy as well. On the one hand, palaeobotanical data indicate that Oreopithecus likely inhabited mixed mesophytic forests interrupted by swamps; on the other hand, an abundance of hypsodont bovids points towards the existence of dry and open environments. Here, we provide a new approach based on the ecomorphology of the extinct endemic Muridae (rats and mice) of the so-called Oreopithecus faunas. Our results show that the successive species of endemic insular murids ( Huerzelerimys and Anthracomys) evolved a number of adaptations observed only in extant family members that include significant proportions of grass in their diet. While this fits the pattern exhibited by large mammals, it contrasts with the available palaeobotanical information, which indicates that grasses were minor components of the vegetation. This contradiction may be explained because these endemic murids may have been adapted to the consumption of particular food items such as hard parts of aquatic plants (as shown by some extant murid species). However, because it is unlikely that the remaining herbivore mammals were adapted to this diet as well, we favour an alternative hypothesis that takes into account the peculiar ecological conditions of insular ecosystems leading to a density-dependent selective regime with strong competition. Such a regime would promote the selection of dental adaptations to increase feeding efficiency and durability of the dentition (such as hypsodonty) as seen in some fossil insular ruminants. This hypothesis requires further testing, but may partly account for parallel evolution of dental traits in phylogenetically unrelated insular mammals.

Molekulare und., adaptive Evolution, Kladistik und Stammesgeschichte1: Ergänzungen zu einer Arbeitshypothese

Molecular and “adaptive” evolution, cladistic and phylogeny. Supplementations to a working hypothesis The methods of molecular biology and morpholo for the taxonomical assessment have given in several cases very different results. The following examples are discussed: Ailuropoda melanoleuca as an ursoid member of the Carnivora (Ursidae or Ailuropodidae?), Homo saiens and his position to the African apes (Pan and Gorilla) (Pongidae or Hominidae?), Theroipithecus gelada and its affinities to the baboons (Papionini or Theropithecini ?) and Oreopithecus bambolii from the late Miocene of Italy and its taxonomical position within the catarrhine primates. For the three extant species not only the “two level evolution” (molecular and morphological-adaptative evolution) is evident, but also the working hypothesis, that the “adaptative” evolution is more rapidly as the molecular evolution, as the author is suggesting since 1969. The results of molecular methods (immunoloy, amino acid sequences, electrophoresis, DNA-DNA hybridization) are more important for the phylogeny than for the taxonomy. For the cladistic method it is clear, that a cladogram is not a phylogenetic tree, as suggested Peter Ax (1984).

NEW DATA ON THE VERTEBRATE ASSEMBLAGE OF FIUME SANTO (NORTH‐WEST SARDINIA, ITALY), AND OVERVIEW ON THE LATE MIOCENE TUSCO‐SARDINIAN PALAEOBIOPROVINCE

Abstract: This paper reports the results of a study of more than 2400 specimens in the collection of fossil vertebrates from Fiume Santo in north‐west Sardinia. This locality represents the westernmost documentation of the Tusco‐Sardinian palaeobioprovince, which was in existence during the late Tortonian in the North Tyrrhenian area. During the Tortonian, the region that presently corresponds to southern Tuscany and the Sardinian Massif (Central Italy) was occupied by a complex of large islands characterised by endemic vertebrate populations. Morphological features, adaptations and trophic structure (e.g. low diversity and scarce carnivore taxa), mainly in the mammal faunas, attest to a long period of isolation from the continental palaeobioprovinces of the Mediterranean and Central Europe. The greatest numbers of fossil remains of the well‐known endemic Oreopithecus fauna of the so called V0–V2 assemblages, are found at several sites in southern Tuscany (e.g. Montebamboli, Casteani, Baccinello). In Sardinia this endemic fauna occurs only at the Fiume Santo locality, from which 11 taxa have been recognized: Crocodylia indet., Chelonii indet., Oreopithecus bambolii, Mustelidae indet., Eumaiochoerus cf. E. etruscus, Umbrotherium azzarolii gen. et sp. nov., Tyrrhenotragus gracillimus, Bovidae gen. et sp. indet. (?Neotragini), Maremmia cf. M. lorenzi, Etruria viallii gen. et sp. nov., Turritragus casteanensis gen. et sp. nov. Analysis of these fossils and comparison with material from localities in Tuscany has led to a re‐evaluation of the latter and to the description of three new endemic taxa among the ruminants.

Oreopithecus: still apelike after all these years

Oreopithecus: still apelike after all these years

Oreopithecus bambolii: an unlikely case of hominidlike grip capability in a Miocene ape

Oreopithecus bambolii, an ape from the late Miocene of Italy, is said to possess a hand capable of a precision grip like that of humans. Relative hand length, proportions of the thumb, and morphological features of the thumb and wrist were adduced to support the idea that Oreopithecus had a hand that closely matched the pattern in Australopithecus. A reappraisal of earlier arguments and comparisons of Oreopithecus with humans, apes, and Old World monkeys, reveals that Oreopithecus had an essentially apelike hand that emphasized apelike power grasping over humanlike precision grasping.

Canine reduction in the Miocene hominoid Oreopithecus bambolii: behavioural and evolutionary implications

The degree of canine size sexual dimorphism and relative canine size, which have been related to levels of agonistic behaviour amongst living anthropoid primates, together with relative molar size, are evaluated in the fossil hominoidOreopithecus bambolii from the Late Miocene of Italy. Although Oreopithecus displays a significant degree of canine height sexual dimorphism, using allometric techniques and body mass estimates for fossil species, it is shown thatOreopithecus males are microdont (smaller postcanine as well as canine teeth than expected) when compared to most living hominoids and its putative ancestor Dryopithecus. Canine reduction in Oreopithecus includes both crown height and, especially, basal area, and most closely resembles the condition found in the pygmy chimpanzee Pan paniscus. Interestingly, it had been previously proposed that Oreopithecus displays, like pygmy chimpanzees, a paedomorphic cranial morphology resulting in a reduction of facial prognathism, which could be related to microdontia in both taxa. Independent canine reduction in several anthropoid lineages (including hominids and P. paniscus) has been related to a relaxation of the selection pressure favouring canine use as a weapon. Although changes in socio-sexual behaviour, as documented in P. paniscus, cannot be currently discarded in Oreopithecus, canine reduction could be also alternatively (although not exclusively) interpreted as an aspect of generalized microdontia. The latter is best considered an adaptive readjustment required by the paedomorphic reduction of prognathism and the resulting lack of space to accommodate the adult dentition. This mechanism of canine reduction highlights the significance of developmental constraints in evolution and had not been previously suggested for any anthropoid primate.

Vertebrate Evolution and Extinction on Western and Central Mediterranean Islands.

The Mediterranean region, like other biogeographic regions located between continental plates, is rich in islands. Most of them are oceanic-like islands, Le., islands that have been previously connected to the surrounding continents and are faunistically similar, but not identical, to oceanic island (because the island - continent connections occurred in a distant past, were of a short duration, and/or promoted a highly selective and limited faunal transfer). Insular (Le., non-continental) vertebrate faunas are known in several Mediterranean islands from the Lower Miocene to Recent times. This paper presents an overview of these faunas in the Western and Central Mediterranean. I will emphasize the following points: 1. Island's geological succession in the western Mediterranean area. 2. Faunistic successions occurring on the different islands. 3. Global analysis of the Mediterranean insular faunas. 4. Record and analysis of some extreme cases of insular evolution. 5. Extinction of the Mediterranean insular faunas. The Mediterranean region has changed substantially from Eocene to current times. A record of the transformation of Mediterranean islands during geological time is presented in this paper. Some territories that were islands in the past (e.g., Gargano, Scontrone, Baccinello, Las Murchas) have been integrated into the mainland and are now continental areas displaying insular fossil faunas. They are considered “fossil islands”. Merging of islands have also occurred (e.g., Mallorca, Sardinia, Crete) as well as some island splitting (e.g., Gymnesic islands). In Sardinia, Mallorca, Menorca and Eivissa, there is a long fossil record documenting several faunistic successions. There, the faunistic turnover affected different taxonomic groups in different ways. Mammals were specially prone to extinction after new invasions. The fossil insular vertebrate faunas from Mediterranean islands are peculiar. They differ both from typical oceanic insular faunas (usually devoid of mammals and amphibians) and the typical continental faunas (lacking endemic species). They are characterized by three main traits: (1) absence of mammal predators, (2) presence of terrestrial mammals and in some cases amphibians, and (3) high rates of endemic species, including some very bizarre taxa. Even though there are some exceptions, it is possible to define several global faunistic patterns for Mediterranean insular faunas. also in assemblages of structures, implying substantial changes in the life style of the species). Some of the most noticeable insular evolutionary changes produced a variety of unusual taxa. Among amphibians, the subterranean Hydromantes from Sardinia, with four species still living on the island, displaying a ballistic chameleon-like retractile tongue, might be considered as examples. Among birds, the enormous owl Tyto gigantea, and the gigantic buteonine falcon Garganoaetus, as well as the terrestrial and probably flightless Cygnus falconeri. Among mammals, the bizarre Myotragus balearicus from the Pleistocene of the Gymnesic Islands (Mallorca and Menorca), a new genus of leporid, still undescribed, from the Pliocene of Menorca, the anthropomorph ape Oreopithecus bambolii from the Miocene of Baccinello (and Sardinia), Hoplitomeryx matthei and Deinogaleryx koenigswaldi from the Miocene of Gargano, and the dwarf hippo Phanourios minor from the Pleistocene in Cyprus, as well as some Pleistocene dwarf elephants and deer scattered over the Eastern and Central Mediterranean islands.1 Finally, the extinction of the insular vertebrate faunas is analyzed. Extinctions are usually related to faunistic turnover, but there are some exceptions. The last extinction wave corresponds to human colonization of the islands. Current faunas of the Mediterranean islands include mainly human introduced mammalian species, but they usually retain the herpetological endemic assemblage of Pleistocene faunas.

The Italian fossil primate record: Recent finds and their geological context

The fossil Primates (other than Homo)) from the Late Miocene to the Middle Pleistocene found in Italybelong to the superfamilies Hominoidea and Cercopithecoidea. Both have been known since the 19th century. The Hominoids are represented solely by the endemic Oreopithecus bambolii,, the Cercopithecoids by one colobine ( Mesopithecus)) and one cercopithecine ( Macaca)). A better understanding of these three taxa is expected to be obtained from the study of several recent finds. Oreopithecus bambolii is part of the “Maremmian” fauna peculiar to the Late Miocene in Italy. Most finds have come from the Bacinello lignite mine in the province of Grosseto, where recent discoveries have allowed a direct comparison to be made between specimens from different levels in the sedimentary succession. Mesopithecus is a small to medium-sized Late Miocene to Middle Pliocene colobine represented by two species in both Southern and Central Europe: M. pentelicus occurs in four Italian Miocene sites, whereas the younger M. monspessulanus for the moment is confined to Villafranca d'Asti (Early Villafranchian), where a new specimen has recently been discovered. Previously Macaca fossils from the Middle Pliocene to the Middle Pleistocene of Italy have been divided into two species: M. florentina,, which is probably related to the living M. sylvanus,, and M. majori,, an endemic dwarf species from Sardinia. The latest finds are those of 8 individuals, provisionally regarded as belonging to the M. florentina-sylvanus lineage, and discovered in association with a Late Villafranchian (Early Pleistocene) vertebrate fauna in a lignite mine at Pietrafitta, Province of Perugia. This welldated collection comprises both gnathic and postcranial fragments and should serve to provide a major contribution towards the understanding of the still problematical taxonomy, phylogeny and palaeoecology of this species.

Dental microwear of European Miocene catarrhines: evidence for diets and tooth use

Abstract Paleontologists have identified ape-like primates from the middle and late Miocene of Europe for more than a century, and new finds continue to improve the record of these important forms. Both hominoids and plio-pithecids are recognized in these assemblages. One key to understanding the ecology and evolution of these primates is the inference of their feeding adaptations. The current study reconstructs the diets of European Miocene catarrhines by examining microscopic use-wear on their teeth. Molar microwear data, such as the ratios of microscopic pits to scratches, reveal a diversity of dietary specializations not seen in living apes, ranging from hard-object feeding for Ouranopithecus macedoniensis to soft-fruit eating for Dryopithecus spp., Anapithecus hernyaki , and Pliopithecus spp. to folivory for Oreopithecus bambolii and pliopithecid specimens from Castell de Barbera, Spain. Incisor microwear analyses also identify variation among these primates such that O. macedoniensis and Pliopithecus platydon probably more often used their front teeth in the ingestion of small or angular abrasives than did other primates studied. Further, O. macedoniensis evidently used its front teeth for a variety of ingestive behaviors that included more stripping of foods laterally across the incisors than did the other taxa examined.