Ocular Complications among Noma Survivors: A Cross-Sectional Study.

A patient with advanced bladder cancer received antitumor therapy consisting of gemcitabine on days 1 and 8 combined with cisplatin and treliprimab on day 1. Severe periorbital hyperpigmentation occurred 30 min after gemcitabine infusion on day 8. Symmetrical diffuse hyperpigmentation of a dark brown hue with indistinct borders appeared around the affected eye, extending to the orbital and facial regions along the orbital margin. No accompanying symptoms, including pruritus, pain, or desquamation, were observed. The patient had no prior history of dermatological conditions and no family history of skin disorders. During chemotherapy, no other drugs, cosmetics, or specific foods known to induce skin hyperpigmentation were used. No additional abnormalities were identified during dermatological examination. Laboratory tests, including liver function indicators such as alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) within the range of 10-40 IU/L, kidney function parameters such as blood urea nitrogen (BUN) 2.8-7.1 mmol/L and creatinine 50-96 μmol/L, blood glucose levels of 3.9-6.1 mmol/L, thyroid function within normal limits, and electrolytes including sodium (Na) 135-145 mmol/L and potassium (K) 3.5-5.5 mmol/L, were all within their respective normal ranges. Considering the patient's medical background, treatment regimen, and the temporal relationship between the onset of symptoms and chemotherapy cycles, this periorbital hyperpigmentation likely represents a transient adverse reaction to gemcitabine, as supported by previously reported cases. Within 2 days after chemotherapy cessation, the periorbital hyperpigmentation improved significantly. This case highlights that during gemcitabine administration, clinicians should remain vigilant for rare adverse reaction of gemcitabine-induced periorbital hyperpigmentation. Close skin monitoring throughout treatment is essential, and prompt evaluation and intervention should be carried out to improve the patient's quality of life.

This study presents a morphometric characterization of the cranial structure of Bos grunniens based on linear measurements taken from adult skulls. Twenty yak skulls (10 males and 10 females) were collected from slaughterhouses in the Bishkek region of Kyrgyzstan. A total of 27 linear cranial measurements were recorded from each specimen, focusing on neurocranial, facial, orbital, and occipital regions. The aim of this study was to describe morphological patterns and structural integration within the yak skull, and to provide baseline morphometric data for a species that remains relatively underrepresented in the literature. Correlation analyses indicated a high degree of morphological association among cranial length, width, and dental parameters. Notably, highly correlated measurement clusters were observed among total cranial length, condylobasal length, dental length, and lateral facial length, indicating coordinated growth and dimensional interdependence in the skull. The first two principal components together explained approximately 75% of the total morphometric variance. PC1 was primarily associated with global skull size and elongation, while PC2 reflected variation in orbital and frontal structures. Additionally, independent t-tests revealed statistically significant differences in selected measurements such as total cranial length, dental length, greatest mastoid breadth, greatest inner height of the orbit, and occipital heights, indicating a secondary role of sexual dimorphism in shaping cranial morphology. The findings contribute to anatomical standardization, taxonomic studies, and future comparative morphometric research in large ruminants.

Metastatic ameloblastoma with skull base or intracranial involvement is exceedingly rare, and optimal local therapy is not well defined when complete resection is infeasible or morbid. Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) may offer focal control for complex skull base targets. A patient with ameloblastoma underwent six prior resections at an outside institution (2010, 2011, 2015, 2018, 2021, and November 2024) before developing multicompartment skull base progression involving the cavernous sinus-sellar region and the infratemporal fossa-right lateral orbital region. SRS (Gamma Knife radiosurgery) was delivered in a staged (sequenced) manner to anatomically distinct targets over time, treating the cavernous sinus-sellar component in November 2024 and the recurrent lesion lateral to the right orbit in April 2025. The cavernous sinus-sellar target received 13 Gy (50% isodose), and the second target received 14 Gy (50% isodose). Follow-up imaging demonstrated marked volumetric response (-93% and -100%, respectively), with clinical improvement and no clinically identified adverse radiation effects. In selected patients with heavily pretreated metastatic ameloblastoma, staged SRS to different skull base compartments can provide durable local control while limiting morbidity. Radiosurgical sequencing may preserve future options in a longitudinal disease course and underscores the need for long-term imaging surveillance. https://thejns.org/doi/10.3171/CASE2651.

Perforators of the transverse facial artery (TFA) contribute to the formation of the subdermal vascular plexus of the lateral face. However, detailed three-dimensional information regarding the layer-specific course, depth, and relationship with landmarks remains limited. To elucidate the three-dimensional topography of TFA perforators and the associated subdermal vascular plexus using contrast-enhanced micro-computed tomography (micro-CT), conventional CT, and cadaveric dissection. Forty-eight hemifaces from 24 non-frozen adult cadavers were analyzed. Forty hemifaces underwent CT imaging and anatomical dissection, whereas eight hemifaces were subjected to phosphotungstic acid (PTA) staining and micro-CT imaging. The locations of the perforators were quantified using surface landmarks (the lateral canthus, ala of the nose, and otobasion inferius), and the depth of the subdermal vascular plexus were measured along predefined reference lines. TFA perforators were identified in 96% of hemifaces, typically as a single dominant perforator (91.3%). The emergence point was located 31.7 ± 6.9 mm lateral and 40.3 ± 4.2 mm inferior to the lateral canthus at a depth of 11.3 ± 3.7 mm. After traversing the SMAS, the perforators branched into a subdermal vascular plexus (depth: 3-5 mm) distributed in the inferolateral orbital and malar regions. These three-dimensional anatomical data provide a practical reference for both surgical and minimally invasive interventions. By defining the precise location and depth of the TFA perforator system, these findings can help optimize flap design in facelifts and reconstructive surgeries, while also improving the safety of interventions such as filler injections and thread-lifting.

The article is devoted to a detailed study of the features of topographic anatomy of soft tissues of the upper face (forehead region, temporal region, orbital region) in the context of the application of hyaluronic acid-based fillers for aesthetic correction. The relevance of the work is due to the growing demand for minimally invasive procedures and the need to minimize the risks of severe complications such as vascular embolism and neurological disorders. Injection of fillers based on hyaluronic acid with lidocaine under ultrasonographic control with subsequent anatomical dissection was simulated during the study on 45 biological blocks of human origin, The method allowed to clarify the variability of the key neurovascular structures location in «dangerous» zones, visualize the distribution of filler in tissues according to their rheological properties and estimate the volume capacity of various anatomical spaces. Based on the obtained data, the safest and most efficient injection techniques (by 22G cannula in the subgaleal space of the forehead, supragaleal space of the temporal region, linear anterograde technique in the orbit region) and the selection of a filler with optimal visco-elastic characteristics. It is shown that the unique CPM technology and balanced rheological properties of hyaluronic acid-based fillers ensure their excellent integration into tissues, predictable distribution and high safety profile, which has been confirmed by both anatomical and clinical studies.

Rationale:Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans (DFSP) is a malignant skin tumor originated from of fibroblast, which remains a challenge in terms of diagnosis and treatment, especially in those with locally-advanced disease.Patient concerns:Case 1 is a 38-year-old male complained with a mass at his left temporal and left mandibular region, and invaded his left orbital region. Case 2 is a 54-year-old male with a mass located in this chest region. The tumor invaded 2th and 3rd ribs with suspicious intra-thoracic invasion. Case 3 is a 63-year-old male with a recurrent tumor in abdominal wall which invaded peritoneum of abdominal wall. Case 4 is a 11-year-old boy with a mass located in his left forearm, which invaded the abductor pollicis longus, extensor pollicis brevis, and extensor carpi radialis longus.Diagnoses:These 4 patients were diagnosed with DFSP with local invasion. Case 3 was pathologically diagnosed with reginal fibrosarcomatous transformation (FS-DFSP).Interventions:Case 1 received imatinib 400 mg/day as neo-adjuvant therapy. After 6 months, the mass significantly shrunk and Mohs surgical resection and reconstruction with free anterolateral thigh flap were performed. Case 2 received Mohs surgical resection and reconstruction with contralateral pedicled latissimus dorsi flap. Case 3 and Case 4 also received Mohs surgical resection of the tumor and construction with a free anterolateral thigh flap.Outcomes:All of the 4 patients achieved clean margins by frozen section during surgery. At the last follow-up, none of them experienced disease recurrence.Lessons:Mohs micrographic surgery is an effective surgical technique for locally-advanced DFSP patients. Imatinib neo-adjuvant therapy is an option when surgical resection with negative margin may cause unacceptable functional or cosmetic outcomes.

The endoscopic endonasal approach offers advantages for accessing lesions in the medial and inferior regions of the orbit; however, its feasibility and practical utility in accessing the anterior orbital region remain unclear. To evaluate the 3-dimensional feasibility and maneuverability of accessing the anterior orbit using sublabial and endonasal multicorridor approaches through anatomic study. A total of 18 sides from 9 anatomic specimens were used for evaluation through the endoscopic endonasal ipsilateral and contralateral transethmoidal approach, endoscopic modified medial maxillectomy, and sublabial transmaxillary approach. Staged coronal cross-sections were created from the lacrimal hamulus in the anterior-to-posterior direction. The accessible ranges in the superior, inferior, and central directions from each corridor were measured and analyzed. The contralateral transethmoidal corridor provided significantly broader central access than the ipsilateral side, with expanded ranges of 8.9 mm (95% CI, 2.5-15.2; P = .001) and 15.6 mm (95% CI, 9.4-21.7; P < .001) at 10 and 20 mm posterior to the hamulus, respectively. Nasolacrimal duct mobilization through the endoscopic modified medial maxillectomy technique consistently expanded access in the ipsilateral transethmoidal corridor (9.6 mm at 10 mm [P < .001]; 12.7 mm at 20 mm [P < .001]), whereas its benefit in the contralateral corridor was limited to the anterior region only (11.0 mm at 10 mm [P < .001]) and was not significant at more posterior sections. The sublabial transmaxillary approach offered superior access only in the inferior direction and only in the most anterior region. Lacrimal hamulus serves as a reliable bony landmark for the anterior orbital region. The transethmoidal approach benefited significantly from nasolacrimal duct mobilization, with the greatest impact observed in the anterior orbital region on the ipsilateral side. Three-dimensional understanding of the accessibility enables the selection of the optimal surgical approach to this challenging region.

Quantitative Anatomical Comparison of Microsurgical Transcranial, Endoscopic Endonasal and Transorbital Approaches to the Orbit and Surrounding Skull Base Regions

The ambimodal cycloaddition between pentafulvene and a homologous series of [n]radialenes (n = 3-6) was systematically investigated using density functional theory, DLPNO-CCSD(T) calculations, and quasi-classical molecular dynamics (QCMD) simulations to elucidate the geometric and electronic origins of periselectivity. Despite their intrinsic instability, these π-rich systems enable the formation of multiple products through bifurcated potential energy surfaces (PESs). Two distinct ambimodal transition states were identified, corresponding to bispericyclic (exo) and trispericyclic (endo) pathways. The reaction revealing [5]-radialene exhibits the most pronounced ambimodal character, driven by favorable exocyclic π-overlap, extensive charge delocalization, and the lowest activation barrier. Intrinsic bond orbital and interaction region indicator analyses reveal asynchronous σ-bond formation and progressive orbital reorganization that govern dynamic branching behavior. QCMD simulations further confirm that product distributions are dictated by PES topography rather than static transition-state energetics, underscoring the significance of dynamic effects in determining selectivity. This comprehensive study establishes a unified mechanistic framework linking geometry and electronic delocalization to dynamic selectivity control in cross-conjugated π-systems, offering predictive insights into ambimodal bis- and trispericyclic reactivity with potential implications for synthetic and biosynthetic design.

Background:Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA) is a rare, benign but locally aggressive vascular tumor predominantly affecting adolescent males. The tumor commonly arises from the posterolateral wall of the nasopharynx and has a strong tendency to extend into the pterygopalatine fossa, infratemporal fossa, orbit, and intracranial region. Surgical excision remains the treatment of choice. Traditionally, open surgical approaches were employed for extensive lesions; however, endoscopic techniques have gained popularity due to improved visualization, reduced morbidity, and shorter recovery time. Aim: To compare outcomes of endoscopic and open surgical approaches in extensive juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma in terms of operative time, blood loss, complications, recurrence, and hospital stay. Methods: This prospective comparative study was conducted at Nalanda Medical College and Hospital, Patna, from November 2023 to November 2025. A total of 30 diagnosed cases of extensive JNA were included. Patients underwent either endoscopic excision or open surgical excision depending on tumor stage and surgical feasibility. Preoperative embolization was performed in eligible cases. Data were analyzed using SPSS software. Continuous variables were compared using independent t-test and categorical variables using Chi-square test. A p-value &lt;0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: Out of 30 patients, 17 underwent endoscopic excision and 13 underwent open surgery. Mean intraoperative blood loss was significantly lower in the endoscopic group (p&lt;0.001). Hospital stay was shorter in the endoscopic group (p&lt;0.001). Complication rates were higher in open approaches. Recurrence was slightly higher in open group but was not statistically significant. Conclusion: Endoscopic surgery is a safe and effective option for extensive juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma with reduced blood loss, fewer complications, and shorter hospitalization. Open approaches remain useful for select advanced lesions with extensive intracranial or lateral extension.

Backgraund: Midfacial defects involving the orbital region are among the most complex challenges in reconstructivesurgery. Globally, the incidence of malignant orbital tumors—and subsequent orbital defects—is around 3.39 cases per million person-years. Due to anatomical and functional limitations, traditional microsurgical techniques cannotfully restore both function and aesthetics in this area. Aims: To enhance the quality of life in patients with midfacial defects using computer-assisted 3D planning for simultaneous extracranial implantation and silicone facial prostheses. Materials and methods: his retrospective study analyzed 63 patients (32 men, 31 women; aged 21–84) treated formidfacial defects at the National Medical Research Center of Otorhinolaryngology (FMBA of Russia) between 2007 and 2025. The etiologies included malignant neoplasms (n=5), post-resection defects after oncological surgeries (n=55), trauma (n=2), and inflammation (n=1). Surgical procedures included placement of cranial implants in the orbital region (n=60), use of a free fibular bone flap with cranial implants (n=2), combination of free fibular flap, free anterolateral thigh flap, and cranial implants (n=1). Patients underwent Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), Multi-Slice Spiral Computed Tomography (MSCT), and 3Dcomputer modeling (Amira and Blender) for pre- and postoperative planning. Outcomes were assessed using modified ECOG questionnaire,VHNSS 2.0,and Holger’s scale (PEQ).Data analysis was conducted using Excel and Statistica 8. Results: 3D modeling significantly improved implant accuracy and aesthetic outcomes (average patient satisfaction: 9/10). The cranial implant survival rate was 98%. Comparative analysis of VHNSS 2.0 and ECOG showed enhanced quality of life and aesthetic satisfaction post-rehabilitation. Holger’s scale confirmed usability and patient satisfaction with the prostheses. Conclusions: Computer-assisted 3D planning significantly improves surgical precision and aesthetic predictability in midface reconstruction. The integration of 3D technologies has enabled the simultaneous performance of surgical and prosthetic procedures, enhancing rehabilitation outcomes for patients with orbital defects

Abstract A Japanese Black cow presented with anorexia. Exophthalmos, a subcutaneous mass, and astasia were noted on physical examination. Hematological examination revealed lymphocytosis (5544/μL). Serum biochemical findings included elevated activities of lactate dehydrogenase and thymidine kinase. Antibodies against bovine leukemia virus (BLV) were detected. The animal was euthanized and necroscopic evaluation was performed, and masses were found in both orbit and left pectoral region; white solid tissue growth in fatty tissue was observed throughout the body. Yellowish-white solid tissue was also observed around the right nerve roots from the 9th thoracic spinal nerves to the 4th lumbar spinal nerves. Immunohistochemical examination showed neoplastic B-cells (positive for BLA-36, CD79α, and PAX5, and negative for CD3) proliferation in the mass lesions and yellowish-white solid tissues. Two integration sites of BLV provirus in peripheral blood and tumor tissues were detected by inverse PCR. Based on these findings, the present case was diagnosed with enzootic bovine leukosis (EBL). The BLV provirus was found to have integrated into the introns of itchy E3 ubiquitin protein ligase ( ITCH ) and Selenoprotein I ( SELENOI ). ITCH is a key player of TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)-mediated apoptosis, and SELENOI adjusts oxidative stress in tissues. Integration of BLV provirus into these genes might have contributed to the onset of EBL and influenced the distribution of neoplastic lesions.

Background and Objectives: Academic point-of-care (POC) manufacturing enables the in-hospital design and production of patient-specific medical devices within certified environments, integrating clinical practice, engineering, and translational research. This model represents a new academic ecosystem that accelerates innovation while maintaining compliance with medical device regulations. Gregorio Marañón University Hospital has established one of the first ISO 13485-certified academic manufacturing facilities in Spain, providing on-site production of anatomical models, surgical guides, and custom implants for oral and maxillofacial surgery. This study presents a retrospective review of all devices produced between April 2017 and September 2025, analyzing their typology, materials, production parameters, and clinical applications. Materials and Methods: A descriptive, retrospective study was conducted on 442 3D-printed medical devices fabricated for oral and maxillofacial surgical cases. Recorded variables included device classification, indication, printing technology, material type, sterilization method, working and printing times, and clinical utility. Image segmentation and design were performed using 3D Slicer and Meshmixer. Manufacturing used fused deposition modeling (FDM) and stereolithography (SLA) technologies with PLA and biocompatible resin (Biomed Clear V1). Data were analyzed descriptively. Results: During the eight-year period, 442 devices were manufactured. Biomodels constituted the majority (approximately 68%), followed by surgical guides (20%) and patient-specific implants (7%). Trauma and oncology were the leading clinical indications, representing 45% and 33% of all devices, respectively. The orbital region was the most frequent anatomical site. FDM accounted for 63% of the printing technologies used, and PLA was the predominant material. The mean working time per device was 3.4 h and mean printing time 12.6 h. Most devices were applied to preoperative planning (59%) or intraoperative use (35%). Conclusions: Academic POC manufacturing offers a sustainable, clinically integrated model for translating digital workflows and additive manufacturing into daily surgical practice. The eight-year experience of Gregorio Marañón University Hospital demonstrates how academic production units can enhance surgical precision, accelerate innovation, and ensure regulatory compliance while promoting education and translational research in healthcare.

Background: Adenoid cystic carcinoma (ACC) affecting the sinonasal and orbitofacial compartments is rare and usually diagnosed at an advanced stage because of nonspecific early symptoms.ACC is classically neurotropic, with perineural invasion (PNI) being a major adverse prognostic factor.We report a rare presentation of a massive cribriform-predominant ACC of the right naso-ethmoido-orbital region with skullbase and intracranial extension but without histologic perineural or vascular invasion.Case presentation: a 27-year-old man from Senegal and builder by occupation, developed a progressive right palpebral swelling in 2015 and underwent an undocumented exenteration in 2017.Recurrence manifested as painful right orbital swelling with bilateral nasal obstruction and anosmia.An endonasal biopsy in August 2024 confirmed ACC.He was referred to our center in Rabat in January 2025.Clinical exam revealed a 9-cm right fronto-orbital mass with purulent discharge and a right nasal cavity occluded by an ulcerated polypoid tumor.MRI showed a 103 111 91mm heterogeneous mass filling the ethmoid/maxillary/frontal complex with bone lysis, pachymeningeal enhancement, orbital obliteration, cavernous sinus and cavernous ICA involvement, and extension to the nasopharynx.He underwent subtotal excision with skullbase repair (multilayer fat graft + bio glue) and packing; directed healing followed by skin grafting.Final pathology: cribriform-predominant ACC, greatest axis 10 cm, no perineural invasion, no vascular emboli.Adjuvant concurrent radio chemotherapy was delivered. Conclusion:This case illustrates the biological heterogeneity of ACC: exceptional tumor bulk and multi-compartment invasion can coexist with absence of PNI.Multidisciplinary management combining maximal safe resection, skull-base repair and adjuvant radiotherapy/ chemoradiotherapy is essential.Long-term surveillance is mandatory given ACC's propensity for late local recurrence and distant metastases.Molecular profiling may further refine prognosis and guide future targeted therapies.

Parry–Romberg syndrome (PRS) is a rare, progressive disorder characterized by hemifacial atrophy involving the skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscles, and bones. Although its exact cause remains unclear, autoimmune, neurogenic, and vascular mechanisms are considered likely contributors. Neurological manifestations, such as migraines and seizures, often complicate the clinical picture and can delay diagnosis. This report presents the case of a 39-year-old woman, who first noticed facial asymmetry at the age of 15. The initial symptoms included thinning of the upper lip, skin tightening, and persistent headaches. Over the years, the atrophy gradually progressed, predominantly affecting the left cheek and orbital region. Diagnostic imaging using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT), along with comprehensive laboratory tests, helped exclude differential diagnoses such as multiple sclerosis and infectious diseases. Given the extent of tissue loss, the patient underwent autologous fat grafting, which led to significant improvement in facial volume and symmetry. This case highlights the importance of early diagnosis and multidisciplinary approach in managing PRS. Although there is currently no definitive cure, reconstructive procedures like fat grafting can yield meaningful aesthetic and functional benefits. Ongoing research into the underlying mechanisms of PRS may eventually lead to the development of targeted therapeutic options.

Proteidae comprise two extant and several extinct genera of paedomorphic salamanders. The extinct proteids are diagnosed based on the vertebral morphology, with only a few isolated skull bones known to date. New cranial material of Mioproteus wezei from the Late Pliocene of Northern Caucasus (Russia), includes articulated skull fragments, numerous isolated bones, and elements of the hyobranchial apparatus. This cranial material, so far the most complete for any fossil proteid, allowed reconstruction of the entire skull of M. wezei. The skull is heavily ossified with a wide orbital region, characterizing a typically aquatic, paedomorphic animal with functional eyes. It shows greater similarity to that of the black olm, Proteus anguinus parkelj, than to the white olm, P. anguinus anguis, supporting the plesiomorphic status of the former. The results provide first insights into skull evolution within the Mioproteus-Proteus lineage, indicating a gradual decrease in orbit diameter, narrowing and elongation of the rostral region and increase in tooth count.

Accurate knowledge of orbital and infraorbital regions and their relation to pterygopalatine fossa is essential for improving safety and effectiveness of infraorbital and maxillary nerve blocks and for guiding surgical procedures in dentistry. Previous studies relied on multiplanar or three-dimensional reconstructions of computed tomographic (CT) images, requiring additional processing and expertise. Scans from 24 European Shorthair cats were analyzed retrospectively, to provide anatomical landmarks and reference values for orbital and infraorbital regions, using a simplified approach based on linear measurements taken directly from sagittal, transverse and dorsal CT planes. Repeatability of measurements was confirmed, with all parameters showing strong agreement across sessions. Significant differences were observed between mean infraorbital canal length in females (5.02 ± 0.42) and males (5.46 ± 0.46), and skull length in females (88.06 ± 3.16) and males (94.54 ± 4.52). Males exhibited 0.42 mm larger infraorbital major axis. After adjustment for skull size, only selected differences persisted, reflecting proportionally longer skulls in males. This study contributes practical reference data to support the limited safe depth for infraorbital/maxillary nerve blocks and the associated risk of globe penetration if instruments are advanced too far into the infraorbital canal. By proposing this simplified and clinic-ready workflow, our results provide foundation for standardization of feline orbital and infraorbital morphometry.

Abstract Because of recent advancements in space technologies, easier and more economical access to space, and an increase in commercial interests, the near-Earth space environment has witnessed an exploding number of objects being put into orbit. In particular, the low Earth orbit (LEO) region is at an increased risk of orbital collisions from large satellite constellation projects. Thus, monitoring LEO objects for space domain awareness and space traffic management has become increasingly imperative. In this paper, we use the concept of limited-CDF (cumulative distribution function) surface and mutual information for designing sensor tasking algorithms focusing on regular observation of known catalog LEO objects (follow-up). Observations are carried out using simulated ground-based optical telescope(s). The simulations are representative of realistic observation processes. We investigate how data from passive space-based sensors can be used to improve the follow-up performance of the telescope(s). A sensor-tasking framework is developed in which we conduct a comparative study to assess how different types of satellite constellation patterns such as Walker-Delta and Walker-Star affect the overall sensor tasking performance. Through several case studies, we (1) analyze the appropriate characteristics of the parameters to be optimized and their impact on the evolution of orbital state uncertainties, (2) compare different traditional and non-traditional algorithms for sensor tasking problem, (3) investigate the effect of measurements from different constellation configurations of passive space-based sensor, and (4) identify a suitable coordinate system for the limited-CDF surface construction.

ABSTRACTThis study investigates fluctuating asymmetry (FA) and directional asymmetry (DA) in the skulls of four cattle breeds: Eastern Anatolian Red, Southern Anatolian Red, Holstein and Simmental by using geometric morphometrics methods. A total of 89 skulls were analysed (Eastern Anatolian Red, n = 16; Southern Anatolian Red, n = 21; Simmental, n = 24; Holstein, n = 28) using 3D landmark based methods, including Procrustes superimposition, principal component analysis (PCA) and Procrustes ANOVA. PCA showed that the first two axes explained 32.39% of DA variation and 26.2% of FA variation, reflecting the multidimensional nature of cranial asymmetry. The results show that DA accounts for a greater proportion of total shape variation than FA, indicating a consistent asymmetry pattern across breeds. PCA revealed overlapping FA among breeds, with Holstein and Eastern Anatolian Red exhibiting greater variation, indicating higher developmental instability. FA, a marker of developmental instability, was most prominent along the horizontal (x‐axis) and vertical (y‐axis) planes, particularly in the nasal and orbital regions, suggesting mechanical loading as a possible influence. Procrustes ANOVA confirmed significant breed effects for skull shape (p < 0.0001), but asymmetry was not breed dependent. The analysis revealed that DA is primarily influenced by biomechanical factors, such as head posture, muscle attachments and habitual head movements, particularly in the occipital region. In contrast to masticatory structures, nasal asymmetry was linked to respiratory efficiency and environmental adaptation. These findings provide new insights into the role of genetic and environmental influences on cattle skull development and demonstrate the value of geometric morphometrics methods in capturing subtle morphological variation beyond traditional linear measurements.