Optimal Stimulation Level Research Articles

Wake up and search for coffee: Considering the circadian rhythm of consumers on online marketplaces

Online marketplaces are characterised by rapid product updates and understanding consumer variety-seeking behaviour (VSB) is paramount for brands operating in this landscape. The literature, however, has fallen short of considering that consumers’ optimal stimulation level (OSL) may vary based on their degree of stimulus–response to the heterogeneity of circadian rhythm. We draw upon the OSL theory and delve into the interplay between VSB and circadian rhythm heterogeneity, uncovering patterns and their relationship for data-driven decision-making. By employing real-world data from an online marketplace, we reveal that VSB peaks in the early mornings, while gradually tapering off. We also find that older consumers exhibit heightened VSB in the afternoons and early mornings compared to younger ones. Conversely, during the evenings, males display greater VSB than females. Our findings contradict existing theoretical intuition and contemporary industry practices, while by considering them, brands can gain a competitive advantage on online marketplaces.

Force reflections of auditory and tactile action-effect weighting in motor planning

Most voluntary actions have only few goals, which provides considerable freedom in the selection of action parameters. Recent studies showed that task-irrelevant aspects of the task context influence the motor parameters of the actions in a way which seems to reflect the relative importance of these aspects within the underlying action representation. The present study investigated how the intensity of auditory action-effects affected force exertion patterns in a self-paced action production task. Participants applied force impulses with their index finger on a force-sensitive resistor every three seconds. In four separate conditions, force impulses elicited no sound, or elicited tones with 69, 59 or 49 dB intensity. The results showed that participants applied more force when tone intensity was lower, and when tones were absent. These force differences were also present in the first 60 ms following tone onset, implying that these reflected differences in motor planning. The results are compatible with the notion that actions are represented in terms of their sensory effects, which are weighted differently—presumably to maintain an optimal level of overall auditory and tactile stimulation in the present case. These results hint at the potential usefulness of motor parameters as readouts of action intentions.

What Motivates Consumers’ Purchase Intentions in E-Commerce Live Streaming: A Socio-Technical Perspective

The surge in popularity of e-commerce live streaming is evident among sellers and consumers. However, a holistic examination of the influencing factors of consumers’ purchase intention from the perspective of social and technical systems is still limited. Utilizing the socio-technical systems theory, we investigate the effects of social and technical system factors on consumers’ flow experience and how flow affects consumer purchase intention in the live streaming setting. Furthermore, we identify how optimal stimulation level moderates the relationship between socio-technical system factors and flow. Empirical results (N = 355) indicate that flow can be strengthened through social system factors (financial bonds, social bonds) and technical system factors (visibility, guidance shopping), consequently affecting consumer purchase intention. In terms of the moderating effects, the optimal stimulation level positively moderates the relationships between social bonds, visibility, guidance shopping, and flow.

The effects of live streamer's expertise and entertainment on the viewers' purchase and follow intentions.

This study explores the impact of two characteristics of streamers-expertise and entertainment-on viewers' purchase intention and follow intention in live-streaming e-commerce, with a specific focus on viewers' trust and flow experience as two mediators and viewers' optimal stimulation level as a moderator. We implemented a methodological approach where participants were randomly directed to enter a live broadcast room and watch a 10-min live session before engaging in a structured questionnaire. 399 valid questionnaires were collected from the participants. These 399 valid questionnaires were subsequently utilized to validate the research model using structural equation modeling (SEM). The results suggest that streamer expertise and entertainment enhance viewers' trust and flow experience, which then leads to an increase in their intention to make a purchase and continue following the streamer. Furthermore, the viewers' optimal stimulation level acts as a moderator in the connections between streamer characteristics and viewers' trust and flow experience, suggesting that individual differences among consumers affect how they respond to streamer characteristics. From the dual perspectives of the streamer and the viewer, this study provides a more comprehensive theoretical perspective on customer behavior in live streaming commerce by not only focusing on consumers' short-term, transactional behavior inclinations but also long-term, relational behavior intentions.

What motivates users' viewing and purchasing behavior motivations in live streaming: A stream-streamer-viewer perspective

Live streaming has offered new opportunities for retailers to increase their sales, hence its reception of continuous scholarly attention. However, understanding the antecedents of viewer watching and purchasing behaviors in live streaming remains largely insufficient. This study thus constructs a framework from a stream-streamer-viewer perspective to provide a deeper understanding of viewer watching and purchasing behaviors. Using flow theory, both stream dimension (social presence and interactivity) and streamer dimension (streamer attractiveness and streamer expertise) as proposed as antecedents of flow, which motivates viewer behavior. Moreover, the optimal stimulation level of viewers (i.e., viewer dimension) was found as a moderator which alters the way stream and streamer dimensions affect flow experience and downstream behaviors. Structural equation modeling was applied on 367 survey questionnaires to test our framework. Results indicate that both social presence and interactivity enhance flow. Furthermore, flow has a significant influence on continuous watching and purchase intention. Meanwhile, optimal stimulation level negatively moderates social presence on flow, but positively moderates interactivity on it.

Investigating Optimal Noise Level for Imperceptible Vibrotactile Stimulation during a Force Stability Task

Imperceptible vibratory noise stimulation has shown to improve stability for both whole body postural control and simple motor control tasks. Noise stimulation is theorized to elicit a stochastic resonance-like effect within the somatosensory system, but there is disagreement in the literature regarding an optimal stimulation level for motor stability in humans. To explore vibrotactile stimulation, eighteen (18) participants performed an isometric finger flexion task with visual feedback while receiving noise stimulation scaled to varying percentages of their sub-sensory threshold level. Performance was quantified as the root-mean-square (RMS) error between the target force and the actual generated force values. The goals of the study were to determine: 1) whether force stability is significantly better when receiving their custom “principal” stimulation compared to other sub-sensory stimulation levels, and 2) if an individual’s principal stimulation level may be predicted by either their maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) or sub-sensory threshold level. A main effect of noise stimulation was observed (p < .001) indicating significantly better performance (lower RMS error) during the force stability task when individualized principal noise stimulation was applied. At the group level, task performance was significantly improved with principal noise stimulation compared to other stimulation levels (p ≤ .019). At the individual level, however, performance at the principal stimulation level was only significantly different than the distribution of errors for other stimulation levels for two individuals. Moderate to strong Spearman correlations (rs = .56 and rs = .65, respectively) suggest principal stimulation level increases with MVC and sub-sensory threshold.

Structure of aesthetic judgements

Daniel Berlyne's "new experimental aesthetics" offers a deliberately mole- cular and non-normative view of aesthetic processes. This paper suggests that Berlyne's theoretical structure may derive greater social applicability by regarding aesthetic stimuli as aspects of leisure and the entertainment industry: that the concept of optimal level of stimulation is useful in predicting individual leisure preferences; that a formal link between percep- tion and intrinsic motivation may be found in perceptually-mediated arousal; and that the hedonic value of this arousal is determined by the socially formed values attached to aesthetic stimuli.

Schema Incongruity: A Framework for Distributing Service Forms of FMCG Brands via a Digital Channel

This paper reports an extension of schema incongruity theory to a service form of fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) distributed via a digital platform. According to this theory, an FMCG brand’s service form would be incongruent compared to its traditional form available via supermarkets. Based on the relevancy and expectancy dimensions, the level of incongruence for such a service was classed as moderately incongruent. The study used qualitative research to investigate whether the moderate incongruence appealed to modern-day customers. The findings revealed that a subscription to receive a regular supply of the FMCG test brand appealed to the respondents. The moderate incongruity employed in this study was of an optimal stimulation level, enabling respondents to see the added values offered. The values recognised included convenience, family bonding, health and variety. The study observed schema incongruity theory operating for the service form of the FMCG brand. As the study used a qualitative methodology, the findings are specific to the brand and context tested. However, the high interest observed suggests schema incongruity theory could serve as a framework for using a digital distribution system to market service forms of FMCG brands.

Dopamine D1R Receptor Stimulation as a Mechanistic Pro-cognitive Target for Schizophrenia.

Decades of research have highlighted the importance of optimal stimulation of cortical dopaminergic receptors, particularly the D1R receptor (D1R), for prefrontal-mediated cognition. This mechanism is particularly relevant to the cognitive deficits in schizophrenia, given the abnormalities in cortical dopamine (DA) neurotransmission and in the expression of D1R. Despite the critical need for D1R-based therapeutics, many factors have complicated their development and prevented this important therapeutic target from being adequately interrogated. Challenges include determination of the optimal level of D1R stimulation needed to improve cognitive performance, especially when D1R expression levels, affinity states, DA levels, and the resulting D1R occupancy by DA, are not clearly known in schizophrenia, and may display great interindividual and intraindividual variability related to cognitive states and other physiological variables. These directly affect the selection of the level of stimulation necessary to correct the underlying neurobiology. The optimal mechanism for stimulation is also unknown and could include partial or full agonism, biased agonism, or positive allosteric modulation. Furthermore, the development of D1R targeting drugs has been complicated by complexities in extrapolating from in vitro affinity determinations to in vivo use. Prior D1R-targeted drugs have been unsuccessful due to poor bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, and insufficient target engagement at tolerable doses. Newer drugs have recently become available, and these must be tested in the context of carefully designed paradigms that address methodological challenges. In this paper, we discuss how a better understanding of these challenges has shaped our proposed experimental design for testing a new D1R/D5R partial agonist, PF-06412562, renamed CVL-562.

Neurophysiological correlates of force control improvement induced by sinusoidal vibrotactile stimulation

Objective. An optimal level of vibrotactile stimulation has been shown to improve sensorimotor control in healthy and diseased individuals. However, the underlying neurophysiological mechanisms behind the enhanced motor performance caused by vibrotactile stimulation are yet to be fully understood. Therefore, here we aim to evaluate the effect of a cutaneous vibration on the firing behavior of motor units in a condition of improved force steadiness. Approach. Participants performed a visuomotor task, which consisted of low-intensity isometric contractions of the first dorsal interosseous (FDI) muscle, while sinusoidal (175 Hz) vibrotactile stimuli with different intensities were applied to the index finger. High-density surface electromyogram was recorded from the FDI muscle, and a decomposition algorithm was used to extract the motor unit spike trains. Additionally, computer simulations were performed using a multiscale neuromuscular model to provide a potential explanation for the experimental findings. Main results. Experimental outcomes showed that an optimal level of vibration significantly improved force steadiness (estimated as the coefficient of variation of force). The decreased force variability was accompanied by a reduction in the variability of the smoothed cumulative spike train (as an estimation of the neural drive to the muscle), and the proportion of common inputs to the FDI motor nucleus. However, the interspike interval variability did not change significantly with the vibration. A mathematical approach, together with computer simulation results suggested that vibrotactile stimulation would reduce the variance of the common synaptic input to the motor neuron pool, thereby decreasing the low frequency fluctuations of the neural drive to the muscle and force steadiness. Significance. Our results demonstrate that the decreased variability in common input accounts for the enhancement in force control induced by vibrotactile stimulation.

Dual effect of sensory experience: engagement vs diversive exploration

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the dual effect of sensory experiences on customer behaviour in the context of retailing. Based on the theoretical framework of the optimal stimulation level theory, the authors propose that sensory experiences reinforce satisfaction, engagement and loyalty, but increase customers’ diversive exploration and curiosity for other experiences and may eventually led to reduced loyalty.Design/methodology/approachA self-administrated online questionnaire was distributed via e-mail to 1,000 households in a Spanish town, and 325 usable responses of supermarket customers were collected. The hypothesised relationships were tested using the partial least squares approach. The analysis is extended with an experiment in online fashion stores that explores whether a varied sensory experience reinforces consumers’ diversive exploration. In total, 68 students participated in the study. Hierarchical regression analysis is performed to analyse the results of the experiment.FindingsFindings support the notion that a pleasant sensory experience increases customer satisfaction and therefore their engagement and behavioural loyalty (exclusivity) towards the retailer whilst also generating more ambitious consumer expectations vis-à-vis the shopping experience and thus encouraging them to search for new retailers and, so, to be less loyal.Research limitations/implicationsThis research warns of the risk of increasing customer’s expectations and reducing their loyalty; hence satisfaction is not enough. Retailers should consider offering new experiences and surprise customers every so often, attempting to curtail the effect of satiation or the effect of over-arousal.Originality/valueThe novelty of this study is the proposal of a twofold effect of sensory experience on loyalty, a positive effect, through satisfaction, and a negative effect, through the search for new experiences.

Switching from hotels to peer-to-peer accommodation: an empirical study

Purpose Peer-to-peer (P2P) accommodation has become increasingly popular in recent years, and hotels are facing unprecedented impacts. Attracting new consumers and retaining existing ones are critical to the success of P2P accommodation and hotels. The purpose of this paper is to examine three categories of antecedents for hotels consumers’ switching intention: push (i.e. satiation), pull (i.e. perceived value) and mooring (i.e. optimal stimulation level) factors using push–pull–mooring (PPM) model. Design/methodology/approach Airbnb was chosen as the research context. An online survey was conducted to examine the proposed research model and hypotheses. A total of 292 valid data were collected from Airbnb users through a survey. Findings The findings show that the three categories of factors have positive and significant effects on switching intention. Additionally, the mooring factor has a significant moderating effect on the relationship between pull factors and switching intention. Furthermore, the mooring factor affects both pull and push factors. Originality/value First, this is one of the early studies to pay attention to switching intention from hotels to P2P accommodation. Second, to provide a comprehensive understanding of consumers’ switching intention, the authors use PPM model to establish the research framework. This research improves the understanding of consumer’s switching intention by identifying the push and pull factors based on the differences between hotels and P2P accommodation in accordance with optimal stimulation level theory and consumer value theory.

What to Do After Visiting a Museum? From Post-consumption Evaluation to Intensification and Online Content Generation

In the context of museums, this article analyses to what extent visitor evaluation of the experience (attainment, emotion, and satisfaction) drives their short-term online behavior: consumption of further online content (intensification) and posting content in online sites (content generation). On the basis of the optimal stimulation level theory and on the balance theory, it proposes that the evaluation of the experience has an inverted U-effect on visit intensification intention while a U-effect on the intention to generate content after the visit. Findings indicate that satisfaction fosters the intention to intensify or consume further content, while the perception of having gained the maximum attainment and emotional value limits it. On the other hand, while satisfaction and the perception of a profitable visit motivate visitors to post online comments, poor experiences in museums have no impact on the generation of online content.

Managing the visual environment of a fashion store

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to investigate the effect of a fashion store’s visual complexity on consumers’ behaviour. Considering environmental order and individuals’ sensation-seeking tendencies, the authors examine the effect of visually complex fashion stores on consumers in a more conclusive way to address the inconsistent effect found in the previous literature.Design/methodology/approachThis study features a 3 (visual complexity level: low, medium, high) × 2 (environmental order condition: low, high) between subjects design, with individual sensation-seeking tendency included as a moderator. Using this design, an online survey was administered to 188 participants in South Korea.FindingsThe results indicate that there is a three-way interaction, where the interaction effect of visual complexity and environmental order is moderated by individuals’ sensation-seeking tendency. The effect of visual complexity on approach behaviours had an inverted U-shape in the low-order condition, while had a positive linear shape in the high-order condition, and the interaction effect was significant only for high-sensation seekers.Practical implicationsThe findings assist practitioners in establishing strategies for visual merchandising and store design within fashion stores. It is suggested that retailers consider environmental order when organising a large amount of varied merchandise in a complex environment. Store managers must adjust the complexity and environmental order to meet the optimal stimulation level of their target consumers.Originality/valueThis study strengthens the literature on visual complexity by applying the concept to the retail environment. The results provide a significant contribution to the literature because they show how individual-level and store-level variables interact to influence consumer behaviour.

Point of care ultrasound: Central venous catheter positioning and pneumothorax search

This article reviews the causes of product introduction failure in the Food & Beverage industry, focusing on consumer and marketing factors, and advances potential remedies. It first introduces key concepts in product acceptance/adoption theories: the consumer decision-making process, main drivers (product, adopter and social system) and barriers (passive/active resistance), and the evolution of hedonic responses to new products. It then discusses specific reasons for failure: food neophobia, novel technology rejection, optimal stimulation level, sensory/consumer research shortcomings and poor marketing support. Lastly, it describes the development of hibiscus beverages of African tradition for the European market to illustrate some practical challenges and solutions.

Roadside advertising and the distraction of driver’s attention

Distraction during driving is becoming a major problem in contemporary transport and traffic psychology. Concentration may deteriorate complex vehicle systems due to the provision of unnecessary information and use of mobile phones (the problem is not only talking but writing text messages and e-mails, browsing sites, etc.). A significant role is also played by advertisers who use aggressive ways to attract attention and communicate product information, especially because they compete with an already overloaded attention system. On the other hand, the need for stimulation is strong with people increasingly less tolerant to monotony. The RoAdvert project is aimed to develop evidence-based rules of placing roadside advertising with respect to safety and real possibilities of regulating the advertising market, including the optimal level of driver stimulation. The paper will present a preliminary analysis of the survey and experimental research.

Characterising the effects of in vitro mechanical stimulation on morphogenesis of developing limb explants

Mechanical forces due to fetal movements play an important role in joint shape morphogenesis, and abnormalities of the joints relating to abnormal fetal movements can have long-term health implications. While mechanical stimulation during development has been shown to be important for joint shape, the relationship between the quantity of mechanical stimulation and the growth and shape change of developing cartilage has not been quantified. In this study, we culture embryonic chick limb explants in vitro in order to reveal how the magnitude of applied movement affects key aspects of the developing joint shape. We hypothesise that joint shape is affected by movement magnitude in a dose-dependent manner, and that a movement regime most representative of physiological fetal movements will promote characteristics of normal shape development. Chick hindlimbs harvested at seven days of incubation were cultured for six days, under either static conditions or one of three different dynamic movement regimes, then assessed for joint shape, cell survival and proliferation. We demonstrate that a physiological magnitude of movement in vitro promotes the most normal progression of joint morphogenesis, and that either under-stimulation or over-stimulation has detrimental effects. Providing insight into the optimal level of mechanical stimulation for cartilage growth and morphogenesis is pertinent to gaining a greater understanding of the etiology of conditions such as developmental dysplasia of the hip, and is also valuable for cartilage tissue engineering.

Optimizing a kidney stress test to evaluate renal functional reserve.

Renal function reserve (RFR) describes the capacity of the kidney to increase glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in response to physiological or pathological stimuli. The scope of our study was to evaluate the optimal level of stimulation using different doses of protein load (PL) for a standard renal stress test (RST). 18 young healthy individuals were given sessions of PL with 1 and 2 g/kg body weight. Endogenous creatinine clearance was calculated. Baseline GFR (bGFR) and stress GFR (sGFR) (post-PL) were obtained; RFR is the difference between stress and baseline GFR. A p-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Mean bGFR was 107.97 ± 12.33 mL/min/1.73m2. sGFR with 1 and 2 g PL were significantly higher than bGFR in all subjects. The sGFR after 2 g PL (141.75 ± 19.90 mL/min/1.73m2) was not statistically different from the sGFR after 1 g PL (142.37 ± 22.35 mL/min/1.73m2). sGFR and therefore RFR were independent from the value of bGFR. We found no difference between 1 and 2 g/kg body weight PL to elicit sGFR. RST may be useful to predict susceptibility and risk of developing acute kidney injury and/or progression to chronic kidney disease. RST uncovers the possible loss of renal functional mass when this condition is not manifested clinically. Further studies are needed to set this hypothesis.

Boredom and Moderating Variables for Customers’ Novelty Seeking

This study aimed to identify possible moderators in the relationship between boredom and novelty seeking. More specifically, this study confirmed the significant influence of boredom on novelty-seeking intention based on optimal stimulation level theory, and also examined the effect of boredom with restaurant attributes on novelty seeking. Further, this study considered loyalty level, risk taking, and demographic characteristics including gender, age, and education as potential moderators and investigated how boredom differently influences novelty-seeking intention depending on those moderators. The results showed that boredom with restaurant attributes leads to novelty-seeking intention. In regards to moderating effects, risk-taking propensity and age were significant moderators in the relationship between boredom and novelty-seeking intention. Discussion and implications are provided in the conclusion.

Differential relationships between D1 and D2 dopamine receptor expression in the medial preoptic nucleus and sexually-motivated song in male European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris)

Converging data in songbirds support a central role for the medial preoptic nucleus (POM) in motivational aspects of vocal production. Recent data suggest that dopamine in the POM plays a complex modulatory role in the production of sexually-motivated song and that an optimal level of dopamine D1 receptor stimulation is required to facilitate singing behavior. To further explore this possibility, we used quantitative real-time PCR to examine relationships between mRNA expression of D1 as well as D2 receptors in the POM (and also the lateral septum and Area X) and sexually-motivated singing behavior in male European starlings. Results showed that both males with the highest and lowest D1 expression in the POM sang significantly less than males with intermediate levels of expression. Furthermore, singing behavior rose linearly in association with increasing levels of D1 expression in POM but dropped abruptly, such that individuals with D1 expression values higher than the mean sang very little. Analysis of birds with low and intermediate levels of D1 expression in POM revealed strong positive correlations between D1 expression and song but negative relationships between D2 receptor expression and song. These findings support prior work suggesting an optimal level of POM D1 receptor stimulation best facilitates sexually-motivated singing behavior. Results also suggest that D2 receptors may work in opposition to D1 receptors in POM to modify vocal production.