One-child Policy Research Articles

The entombed lives – the experience of sibling abortion under China’s One-Child Policy

The entombed lives – the experience of sibling abortion under China’s One-Child Policy

Childlessness and its associated factors among Chinese women: a nationwide population-based study

BackgroundChina has experienced a continuous decline in fertility rates, despite the end of the one-child policy, further intensifying population ageing. Timely evidence on the factors associated with childlessness among Chinese women is needed, alongside examining reproductive anxiety among childless women of reproductive age.MethodsThis nationwide, cross-sectional study was based on the 2023 Psychology and Behavior Investigation of Chinese Residents Survey. A total of 10,802 women across mainland China who were (or had been) married were included, of whom 5,885 were of reproductive age (20–49 years) and 4,917 of post-reproductive age (≥ 50 years). Logistic and linear regression analyses were conducted to examine factors associated with childlessness among reproductive-aged and post-reproductive women, and reproductive anxiety among childless women of reproductive age at intrapersonal, interpersonal, and societal levels, as outlined in the social-ecological model.ResultsThe comparison of reproductive patterns among women across different age groups showed a dramatic decline in the proportion of having three or more children, and a gradual increase in the childlessness over time. Among 5,885 women of reproductive age by the time of the survey, 612 (10.4%) reported having no children, while among 4,917 post-reproductive women, 161 (3.3%) were childless. Higher education level (OR = 2.83 [2.26, 3.55]; OR = 2.35 [1.44, 3.74]), being the only child in the family (OR = 2.85 [2.28, 3.55]; OR = 10.56 [7.38, 15.14]), and exposure to intimate partner violence (OR = 1.15 [1.02, 1.29]; OR = 1.68 [1.43, 1.98]) were significantly associated with childlessness among both reproductive-aged women and post-reproductive women. Poorer stress coping ability and exposure to sexual abuse during childhood were also associated with childlessness in post-reproductive women. Among childless women of reproductive age, higher education level, higher body image dissatisfaction, exposure to child abuse, parental issues during childhood, and belonging to ethnic minority groups were associated with increased reproductive anxiety.ConclusionsThis study used the most recent nationwide survey data from China to identify factors associated with childlessness and reproductive anxiety, with an emphasis on socio-economic factors and domestic violence. The findings highlight the significant impact of domestic violence on fertility behaviors and reproductive anxiety, providing valuable evidence for future policy interventions.

Impact of peer dynamics and only-child experience on academic motivation among Chinese international graduate students in the U.S.

Chinese international graduate students (CIGs), growing up without siblings, under China’s One-Child policy, are particularly impacted by peer dynamics. This study explored the influence of peer dynamics and family structure on the academic motivation of CIGs in the U.S., using Bandura’s self-efficacy theory as a framework. A single-case study approach involved six in-depth interviews. Findings showed that CIGs, with high academic self-efficacy, favor limited and balanced peer interactions, forming deep connections with co-national peers while maintaining primarily academic interactions with host and other international peers. These diverse interactions affect academic motivation both positively and negatively, with personality traits playing a crucial role in shaping these peer interactions.

The effect of the one-child policy on fertility in China: identification based on difference-in-differences

The effect of the one-child policy on fertility in China: identification based on difference-in-differences

Heterogeneous fertility reponses to the two-child policy: growth-induced domestic migration and income effect

ABSTRACT The deteriorating demographic structure in China has already invalidated its one-child policy ineffective. However, smoothing the ripple effects generated by this policy will require more comprehensive population policies. This context led to the introduction of the two-child policy in China. This paper examines the effects of the two-child policy by observing the regions that were previously subject to the one-child rule. The findings indicate that a geographic mismatch between people’s willingness to have children and household income has resulted in an uneven distribution of birth rates following the implementation of the two-child policy, with higher birth rates concentrated in rural areas experiencing rapid urbanization. As the Chinese economy progresses towards a higher level of urbanization, population policies aimed at encouraging larger families will become less effective, as fertility norms will have permanently altered in tandem with the rising costs of urban living. With more affluent populations less likely to have more than one child, understanding how to increase fertility rates in demographic groups that have not fully transitioned to the advanced urban sector will be crucial for developing effective population growth policies.

The Impact of Fertility Relaxation on the Gender Wage Gap

The Impact of Fertility Relaxation on the Gender Wage Gap

Exploring the Relationship Between Aggressive Behavior, Family Parenting Styles, and Self-Esteem Among Only-Child College Students in China: A Cross-Sectional Study.

The prevalence of aggressive behavior among adolescents in higher education settings, particularly within the unique context of China's one-child policy, has become an increasingly significant issue. This study aims to elucidate the interplay between aggressive behaviors, parenting styles, and self-esteem among college students who are only children. Conducted as a cross-sectional study from September 2022 to September 2023, the research involved a sample of students from four higher education institutions in Anhui Province, employing a convenience sampling method stratified by year of study and academic major. A total of 5,700 college students participated, with 5,431 valid responses obtained, resulting in a 95.28% validity rate. The average age of the participants was 19.16 ± 1.1 years, with 50.19% male and 49.81% female. The Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ), a revised Chinese version of the short Egan's Memories of Parents' Education (s-EMBU) questionnaire, and the French version of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (R-SES) were utilized to assess levels of aggression, parental styles, and self-esteem, respectively. Data were analyzed using SPSS26.0 and SPSS PROCESS Macro. The findings revealed that only children exhibited significantly higher levels of physical aggression (19.26±5.33 vs 18.41±4.87, p < 0.001) and hostility (18.64±5.68 vs 18.30±5.33, p = 0.046) compared to their non-only child peers. Regression analysis showed that both paternal (β = 0.670, p = 0.004) and maternal rejection (β = 1.095, p < 0.001) positively predicted aggressive behavior, while self-esteem negatively correlated with aggression (β = -0.375, p < 0.001). Mediation analysis indicated that self-esteem partially mediated the relationship between parental rejection and aggression, accounting for 6.90% and 6.54% of the variance in paternal and maternal rejection, respectively. This suggests that self-esteem nurturing may be a potential strategy to reduce aggression among only-child college students. The study concludes that nurturing self-esteem among only-child college students in China may be a pivotal strategy in curbing aggressive behaviors, underscoring the necessity to comprehend the intricate relationship between parenting styles, self-esteem, and aggression. The insights gained from this research are instrumental in enhancing social cohesion by addressing the distinctive needs of this demographic.

Population and national economy of the Chinese province of Gansu under the implementation of the policy of &amp;quot;reform and opening up&amp;quot; from 1979 to 1999.

The article attempts to examine the evolution of the population and national economy of the Chinese northwestern province of Gansu in the initial period of implementing the &amp;quot;reform and openness&amp;quot; policy from 1978 to 1999. During the introduction of market relations and the implementation of socialist modernization in the PRC, special attention was paid to the economic strengthening of the eastern provinces. By 1978, the northwestern province of Gansu completed the implementation of the &amp;quot;three-line construction&amp;quot; projects and entered the era of reforms. The basis of the provincial economy was the mechanical engineering, oil refining, food, textile industries, whose enterprises underwent transformations during the transition to market relations, suffered losses, restructured and were able to maintain their production potential. The leading position in the national economic complex of Gansu was assigned to the agricultural sector. The transition to market relations in Gansu agriculture through the creation of individual private farms and effective spatial and economic differentiation of agricultural activity in the province made it possible to increase production volumes in poultry farming, livestock farming, grain growing, vegetable growing and fruit growing to an unprecedented extent in the history of Gansu. The successes in transforming the national economic complex of Gansu during the reform years were reflected in the demographic development of the province. Despite the decline in the birth rate under the one-child policy, the number of residents in Gansu increased annually, mortality decreased, the working-age population predominated, the population aging at a low level was recorded, and incomes and wages grew.

Demographic Challenges and Their Impact on Economic and Social Stability in China

China is facing a profound demographic shift characterized by declining birth rates, a rapidly aging population, and significant urban-rural disparities. Despite phasing out the one-child policy in 2015 and introducing two-child and three-child policies, the total fertility rate (TFR) fell below 1.0 in 2024, far below the replacement level of 2.1. These trends have led to negative population growth and a rising dependency ratio, projected to reach 60.3% by 2024. This demographic imbalance exacerbates labor shortages, increases labor costs, and places immense strain on healthcare and pension systems, particularly in rural areas where social service access remains inadequate. While similar challenges are evident in aging societies like Japan and South Korea, China’s regional disparities and economic scale complicate policy implementation. This study identifies gaps in addressing the structural challenges hindering fertility policies, including economic pressures, cultural resistance, and inequities between urban and rural regions. Employing secondary data analysis, trend analysis, and comparative case studies, this research evaluates demographic trends from 2020 to 2024 and assesses the effectiveness of current policies. Findings reveal the limited success of China’s pronatalist policies and underscore the urgent need for comprehensive reforms. Recommendations include targeted investments in rural areas, affordable childcare, gender-equitable policies, and technological adoption to mitigate labor shortages. Future research should explore global lessons, public attitudes, and innovative strategies to address the socio-economic implications of demographic shifts, offering insights for sustainable policy design in aging societies.

Mo Yan’s Frog: Rethinking Life as “Wa”

Mo Yan’s 2009 novel Frog (Wā 蛙) traces the dramatic career of a rural obstetrician who saves lives through modern medicine, forces vasectomies and abortions through her implementation of the one-child policy, supports her nephew’s black market surrogacy scheme, and finally ends up withdrawing into a spiritual state of atonement for her previous deeds. This article examines the relationship between human and animal in the novel, suggesting that the conceptual separation of these categories is intimately related to the various problems the novel depicts throughout Chinese modernity. By focusing on the critical possibilities offered by the novel’s title, Wā 蛙, as a homophone with both “baby” (wá 娃) and the “wa” of the mythical female progenitor Nüwa (娲wā), I suggest that Mo Yan offers a new concept of life, best referred to simply as wa, in response to certain crises of modernity. As an ambiguously generative reconceptualization of life, wa denies conventional and simplistic distinctions between human and animal while incorporating elements of spirituality and unknowability into an otherwise overly rationalized and monetized idea of the human.

Navigating Literary Controversies: A Rereading of Mo Yan’s Frog in the Global Literary Landscape

The essay examines the controversies surrounding Mo Yan’s Nobel Prize. Western critics argue that Mo Yan does not deserve the prize because of his ties with the Chinese Communist Party. The essay critiques the Western assumption that Chinese writers must openly express political opinions despite censorship. By using close reading analysis, the essay aims to understand how Mo Yan creates a fictional space to discuss sensitive topics by analysing his novel Frog. It suggests that Western ideals of democracy and freedom influence the assessment of Mo Yan’s authenticity, overlooking the Chinese political context that limits free expression. The essay argues for a more inclusive global literary sphere while emphasizing close reading over Franco Moretti’s distant reading. This approach reveals how Mo Yan’s Frog navigates censorship through literary devices and a narrative subtly criticizing state policies such as the Cultural Revolution and the one-child policy. Even within a restrictive environment, Mo Yan constructs an autonomous literary space in his fiction, as Pascale Casanova proposed, which allows him to discuss sensitive issues without overt political alignment.

Analysis of the Impact of Family Planning on Chinese Society

In the 1980s, China implemented the one-child policy as a means to manage population growth during its reform and opening-up period. This policy not only contributed to a reduction in crime rates associated with overpopulation but also empowered women to enter the workforce, thereby stimulating economic development. By 2016, the two-child policy was introduced to address gender discrimination and further promote women's rights. The policy underwent another transformation in 2021 with the introduction of the three-child policy, aimed at tackling the growing issue of an aging population in China. This paper examines the impact of family planning policies on Chinese society and women's rights from both economic and sociological perspectives. Through an analysis of specific cases alongside historical context, this study illustrates the intrinsic connection between birth policies and China's economic development as well as women's social status. The discussion highlights how China's family planning initiatives have influenced societal dynamics and enhanced women's rights, demonstrating improvements in their social standing while concurrently reducing crime rates. The evolution of these policiesfrom one-child to two-child, and now three-childreflects China's strategic response to demographic challenges, underscoring the relationship between fertility policies and women's empowerment.

Stigma of Losing an Only Child: Implications for Public Perceptions of Bereavement Adversities and Prosocial Tendencies in China.

Given the one-child policy (1979-2016), many bereaved parents (mean age ˃ 60years) in China have lost their only child. Yet, the social environment in which these parents continue their lives is little known. The current study drew on data from 2029 Chinese adults (Mage = 36.62years, SDage = 10.06, range = 18-71) who anonymously completed questionnaires about their negative attitudes towards the bereaved parents (i.e., stigma of losing an only child), perceptions of adversities faced by these parents, and prosocial tendencies (willingness to provide personal help and expectations for government support). In total, 44% of the participants held moderate to high levels of stigma of losing an only child. Participants with greater stigma reported fewer adversities faced by the bereaved parents and they were less likely to agree that the government should provide resources. Moreover, perceptions of adversities mediated the negative association between public stigma and expectations for governmental support. This study advances our understanding of the unwelcoming environment in which the vulnerable population of parents who have lost their only child live by innovatively revealing perspectives from the public.

Health Effect of Elderly Family Planning Subsidy on Older Chinese with Only One Child

ABSTRACT The decades-long one-child policy in China has led to a growing number of older individuals with only one child. The Elderly Family Planning Subsidy (EFPS) policy was introduced to provide extra financial support to this group and was expanded nationwide in 2012. This study investigated the relationship between EFPS use and health among EFPS-eligible older Chinese using data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study. A total of 1,981 respondents were eligible for EFPS (i.e. aged 60 and above, had only one child, or were rural residents with two daughters). Respondents self-reported if they received EFPS in 2011, 2013, and 2015 and were followed up to 2018. Propensity score matching was used to match EFPS non-users with users based on their probability of using EFPS. Among the EFPS-eligible respondents, 256 (12.92%) used the benefit. Analysis revealed no significant differences between EFPS users and non-users with respect to mortality and other health outcomes (i.e. self-reported health, cognition, activities of daily living, chronic diseases, and depressive symptoms). Findings do not provide evidence that EFPS improved the short-term health of older Chinese with only one child.

Developing identities in family musical involvement: A qualitative study

In both Chinese and Western cultures, the family plays an important role in shaping musical identity. However, family involvement in musical engagement is likely to be different in the two social and cultural contexts. We carried out a qualitative investigation into family musical involvement (FMI) in the Chinese context. A total of 16 members of six urban families in Chengdu, Sichuan, China took part in semi-structured interviews, which were analyzed using thematic analysis. All the participating families had experienced the one-child policy and their narratives included retrospective accounts. Our findings were consistent in suggesting that these Chinese families typically consist of a powerful mother, a weaker father, and an obedient child. Although the culture of Chinese family culture is traditionally considered to be male-dominated and patriarchal, mothers have a dominant status in FMI because they often provide key opinions and make decisions for the whole family. Children are at the core of FMI as a Chinese family’s FMI is often child-centered. The roles that individual family members play can reflect their status and how they perceive the status of music in the family, which is also helpful for understanding the mechanisms underlying FMI.

The Public and Private Dimensions of Chinese Women's Bodies—From Reproductive Policies to Bodily

This study examines the impact of China’s evolving reproductive policies and the recently implemented "cooling-off period" for divorce, underscoring how these shifts implicitly discipline women’s reproductive and marital autonomy. Despite the transition from the "One-Child Policy" to the "Three-Child Policy" appearing to offer increased reproductive choice, women’s decisions are still heavily influenced by family expectations, including pressure to bear male children, the demands of multiple births, and constraints on birthing choices. Such interventions not only intensify psychological pressures but also contribute to social issues like postpartum depression, suicide, and marital instability. By analyzing policies and relevant data, this paper reveals the combined influence of state and family on women’s reproductive behaviors and explores approaches to balance competing interests among the state, family, and individuals. Key recommendations include strengthening legal protections, expanding social support systems, and promoting cultural change to respect women’s autonomy over their reproductive choices. The broader implications of these policy adjustments emphasize the critical role of reproductive autonomy in achieving gender equality and sustaining social development. This issue transcends national borders, positioning it within the broader global movement for gender autonomy.

Can intergenerational relationships mitigate digital exclusion among China’s elderly population?

ABSTRACT In the burgeoning grey economy, the elderly have been widely praised for their digital readiness dividends. However, there remains a significant gap in the literature regarding solutions to the critical issue of digital exclusion faced by the elderly. This study utilizes the microdata from three waves of the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) in 2016, 2018, and 2020 to explore how intergenerational relationships influence the digital exclusion of older adults and identify the mechanisms. The findings reveal that strong intergenerational bonds significantly narrow the digital divide for the elderly. The analysis highlights that such relationships have a more pronounced impact on mitigating elderly digital exclusion among early-aged parents, males, residents of rural areas, and families where parents and offsprings cohabit. The mechanisms through which these relationships exert their influence include promoting intergenerational support exchanges, providing digital guidance from children to parents, and enhancing the elderly’s acceptance of digital technology. Furthermore, this paper employs the ‘one-child policy’ as a quasi-natural experiment to examine the moderating role. The findings underscore the value of nurturing parent-child bonds in reducing digital exclusion among the elderly, offering strategic insights for addressing this issue in societies experiencing both ageing populations and declines in birth rates.

Intergenerational transmission of fertility: evidence from China's population control policies

Abstract This paper examines how the number of siblings that parents have affects their fertility decisions in China. The population control policies in China affected individuals unequally across birth cohorts and regions. The exogenous variation in fertility is used to identify the effect of the number of siblings on the number of children for the next generation. The results show that a couple tends to have 0.034–0.068 more children (2.3–4.6% of the average number of children) and is 2.4–6.8 percentage points more likely to violate the One-Child Policy (9.3–27.1% of the violation rate) if the husband and the wife have one more sibling each. Moreover, the effect on fertility is stronger for couples in lower-income provinces where the fertility rate is higher and in rural areas where the One-Child Policy was enforced less strictly. Finally, I show that the ideal family size of the husband and wife is an important channel through which the number of siblings affects fertility. I also find that the effect of people's number of siblings has a larger effect on their ideal number of children than on their actual number of children, suggesting that they are constrained from achieving their fertility ideals.

Oral History as Theater: Transnational Legacies of China’s One-Child Policy

ABSTRACT This article argues that oral history is a collaborative effort of theater-making between the interviewee, the interviewer, and an anticipated audience. During the summers of 2021 and 2022, I invited twelve Chinese American seniors to reflect on their experiences of China’s One-Child Policy and how reproductive control affected their retirement in the U.S. The paper illuminates the theatrical nature of oral history – a constant oscillation of our perception between what is actually happening and what we think is happening, and between what the interviewer and the interviewee believe is happening. This interactive process, in turn, shapes actuality.

Confucian filiality revisited: The case of contemporary China

The ideal of filiality ( xiao) – care and reverence for elderly parents and ancestors – is one of the central values in Confucianism. It has been hugely influential in Chinese society. However, it has often been misused and vulgarized in practice, leading to significant human suffering. Hence, there is a need to articulate a morally defensible and realistic interpretation of filiality that is appropriate for the Chinese context. In this article, I articulate an account of filiality that can be deployed to enhance understanding of the ideal, criticize misuses and promote healthy relations among family members. I argue that filiality comprises five parts that have been influential in Confucian philosophy and Chinese society. For each component, I demonstrate that a morally defensible and realistic interpretation must be sensitive to the age and health condition of family members, as well as the particularities of modern Chinese society such as the legacy of the one-child policy. I support my argument with empirical research findings from China. I do not deny the possibility that my argument may be valid outside of China, but I leave it as an open question.