Concluded on July 31, 2025, the U.S.-Pakistan trade agreement indicates the new course in the foreign policy of Islamabad, both in terms of economic recovery and strategic repositioning. The deal is being hailed as historic by the Pakistani Prime Minister, Shehbaz Sharif, and futuristic, with the expectation that the U.S. and Pakistan will work together to develop unexploited oil fields and a significant cut in the U.S. tariffs on Pakistani exports. The deal addresses the Pakistani burden of importing oil worth 11.3 billion dollars and gives Pakistan a window to purchase some U.S. oil for the first time. Strategically, the agreement strengthens Pakistani relations both with the U.S and China, giving it a high status during the great power rivalry. It also provides Washington with a new grip in South Asia and can potentially counter the rise of India's influence regionally. Although Pakistani authorities deny having a zero-sum approach, the deal has worsened Indo-U.S. relations, especially after Washington had imposed a 25% tariff on India over its relations with Russia. The article proposes an in-depth discussion on the agreement by presenting the case that it is a potential economic jackpot, as well as a diplomatic achievement of Pakistan, subject to the successful navigation of multiple alliances and the domestic politico-economic stability of the country.

The study explores the possibility of creating detailed maps of soil cover structure and sustainable intra-field heterogeneity using the principles of calculating coefficients of the multitemporal soil line for precision agriculture systems. The research employs various methods, including neural network filtering of remote sensing data, constructing open soil surface maps based on the spectral vicinity of the soil line, field soil surveys, biological yield measurements, and laboratory agrochemical analysis of soil samples. The study area comprises fields located in northern Kazakhstan, characterized by moderately dry steppe conditions and minimal relief variations. The primary soil types in this region are southern and ordinary chernozems, which exhibit different fertility potentials and soil formation conditions. The results demonstrate that the open soil surface map, derived from multitemporal remote sensing data, effectively highlights soil heterogeneity. Southern chernozems showed lower biological yield due to the presence of dense carbonate horizons, while ordinary chernozems exhibited higher fertility and yield potential. The study also revealed a strong linear relationship (R² = 0.95) between spectral reflectance and organic carbon content, enabling accurate mapping of humus content and soil types. The practical application of these maps in precision agriculture resulted in an economic benefit of approximately 1100 rubles per hectare.

As Indonesia’s mature oil fields decline, biosurfactant-based Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) offers a sustainable alternative. This study evaluates the compatibility of rhamnolipid biosurfactant with reservoir fluids and mineralogy of sandstone using Buff Berea Sandstone Sample. Tests were conducted at 0–7.5% rhamnolipid concentrations in brines with salinities of 5000–30,000 ppm NaCl. Rhamnolipid remained stable at high salinities and 60 °C. Mineralogical analysis confirmed quartz dominance (>70%) with reactive silicates influencing biosurfactant retention. IFT decreased significantly with increasing rhamnolipid concentration, most notably between 0% and 1.5%, with greater reduction in light oils. Viscosity increases were prominent in medium oil at medium–high salinity, reaching 18–20 cP, indicating improved mobility control. pH remained stable (5–6), safe for reservoir applications. Contact angle tests showed light oil had higher wettability (15.07°) than medium oil (25.05°), with medium oil offering higher mobilization potential under surfactant-assisted recovery. Results demonstrate rhamnolipid’s strong potential as an efficient, environmentally friendly EOR agent, with chemical and mineralogical compatibility supporting its application in Indonesian oil fields. This integrated evaluation provides insights into biosurfactant behavior in realistic geological conditions.

Currently, the problem of reducing the efficiency of reservoir pressure maintenance systems at late stages of field development with highly heterogeneous reservoirs is a serious one for the oil and gas industry. This paper considers the Srednebotuobinskoye oil and gas condensate field (SBNGKM), which is characterized by highly heterogeneous reservoir, water cut in some wells exceeding 95%, and low water injection efficiency. In this paper, waterflooding optimization using the streamline method was applied for the first time for the conditions of one of the largest fields in Yakutia – SBNGKM. The objective of the work was to increase the efficiency of reservoir pressure maintenance by redistributing injection between injection wells using hydrodynamic modeling of streamlines. The research materials included a three-dimensional hydrodynamic model of the Bt formation of the SBNGKM central block in the tNavigator software, historical data on 37 production and 15 injection wells for the period 2010-2021. An algorithm for redistributing injection with an increase in volumes in highly efficient wells by 20-30% and a decrease in low-efficiency wells by 15–40% was implemented. The results showed an increase in average injection efficiency by 41%, a decrease in water cut by 3.2% and an increase in cumulative oil production by 65,414 tons over a 10-year forecast period. Practical significance is confirmed by an increased ultimate oil recovery factor by 1.7% without capital expenditures. The prospects of the study are associated with the development of adaptive algorithms for automatic optimization based on machine learning and the integration of real monitoring systems for filtration parameters. The implementation of the proposed methodology can significantly increase the economic efficiency of developing complex reservoirs at a late stage of operation due to the rational use of the existing well infrastructure and water resources.

Introduction. The problem under consideration belongs to the problems of optimal control of lumped sources in systems with distributed parameters. Such problems are described by initial-boundary-value problems with respect to partial derivative equations of various types. The theory of optimal control problems for systems with distributed parameters began to be most actively developed in the 60’s of the last. This was due to the need to problem such important processes as the development of large oil and gas fields and pipeline transportation of hydrocarbon raw materials. Similar problems are relevant in metallurgy, ecology and many other industries. The purpose of the paper. This paper investigates the problem of synthesizing optimal control of moving point heat sources for heating a two-dimensional plate. The powers of the sources and their trajectories of motion, described by ordinary differential equations, are optimized. In addition, in the problem under consideration, the locations of temperature measurement points are also optimized. The necessary optimality conditions for the feedback parameters and the coordinates for setting the measurement points are obtained. The conditions contain formulas for the components of the gradient of the objective functional according to the parameters being optimized. Results. The necessary conditions of optimality of the synthesized feedback parameters and formulas for the components of the gradient of the objective functional on these parameters are obtained. These formulas allow the use of efficient first-order numerical optimization methods to solve the problem of feedback parameter synthesis. The results of computer experiments obtained using first-order numerical optimization methods are presented. Conclusions. An approach to feedback control of the motion and power of lumped sources in systems with distributed parameters is proposed. The problem of controlling moving heat sources used to heat a plate is considered. The powers and control actions on the motion of point sources are determined in the form of proposed dependencies on the results of the taken measurements. The differentiability of the functional with respect to the feedback parameters is shown, and formulas for the gradient of the functional with respect to the synthesized parameters are obtained. The formulas allow us to use efficient numerical methods of first-order optimization and available standard software packages to solve the problem of synthesis of control of lumped sources. Keywords: plate heating, feedback control, moving sources, temperature measurement points, feedback parameters.

The article considers the problems and ways of efficient utilization of associated petroleum gas. The geological causes of excess production of associated petroleum gas at the developed fields of the Nepa-Botuobinskaya anteclise in the southwest of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) are designated. The inexpediency of utilizing associated petroleum gas by generating electricity is noted due to the excess of the latter in the region. The infrastructural, technological and fiscal factors contributing to the flaring of associated petroleum gas are listed. Based on the territorial location of the developed fields, the Talakanskaya, Botuobinskaya and Mirninskaya oil production locations are identified. The reserves of dissolved gas and gas cap gas for the developed oil fields are presented as a percentage of the total reserves of the developed fields. It is concluded that the Botuobinskaya oil production location with excess production of associated petroleum gas is the one with the best gas reserves. For the efficient utilization of associated petroleum gas, it is proposed to organize a large gas (energy) consumer in the form of data processing centers (DPC) with fiber-optic communication lines (FOCL) to Northern China on the territory of the Botuobinskaya oil production location. Aggregated calculations show a favorable difference (more than 50 times) in the cost of laying a FOCL line relative to the construction of a gas pipeline with a similar length. It is concluded that the remoteness of the territory, the availability of a cheap energy source and a free cold climate will determine the advantage in all the main processes of energy consumption of the DPC. To level out the costs associated with construction in hard-to-reach areas, it is proposed to apply tax breaks to construction projects for the utilization of associated petroleum gas.

The generalized axisymmetric model of fluid motion in a porous medium in the presence of a non-stationary external source or absorption is studied by methods of group (symmetry) analysis of differential equations. All its invariant submodels of rank 1 are studied. They are specified by invariant solutions of rank 1 of the equation of the original model. These solutions are obtained either explicitly, or their search is reduced to solving systems of ordinary differential equations of the first order. For explicit solutions at specific values of the parameters included in their expressions, graphs of the pressure distribution in the porous medium are constructed. The remaining solutions are used to study physically meaningful boundary value problems for which, at the initial moment of time, the pressure and either the rate of its change along the axis of symmetry or the radial rate of its change are specified at a fixed point of the medium. These boundary value problems are solved numerically for some specific values of the parameters included in them. Graphs of the functions determining these solutions are obtained. The conducted research is relevant in many areas of applied science and technology: filtration, soil mechanics, rock mechanics, oil field engineering, construction engineering, petroleum geology, biology and biophysics, materials science.

The goal of the work is to generalize the results of optimization of the development system of Productive Series deposits (Lower Pliocene) by regulating the development using appropriate methods and Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR). To achieve the goal, the following tasks were set: clarification of the geological structure of the field, clarification of geological profiles, assessment of oil-saturated reservoirs, analysis of the implemented development systems on terrigenous reservoirs, justification of a set of geological and technical measures, comparison of various development scenarios, assessment of the effectiveness of measures and the approach to optimization of development systems. The solution of these problems is the basis for increasing the degree of involvement of reserves in development using the analogy method. The target object is the Gurgan-Deniz oil field. The geological structure of the Gurgan-Deniz field is complex because it is complicated by longitudinal and transverse (thrust) faults. The fault divides the Gurgan-Deniz field into two areas, the northern and southern. The southwestern limb of the Gurgan-Deniz fold, with a longitudinal fault with a vertical displacement amplitude of 750-800 m, overlaps the northeastern limb and divides the field into supra-thrust and sub-thrust objects. The supra-thrust object includes – Gala (GaS) and Pre-Kirmaki (PK) suites; while the sub-thrust objects are: upper-lower and middle parts of the Pre-Kirmaki (PKu , PKb+ PK m) and Kirmaki (KS) suites. The oil deposits are associated with lithologically limited, tectonically screened and mixed type of traps. The Shewhart method was used, which makes it possible to optimally regulate the development process and analyze deviations in the process and determine the causes during development. The following development indicators were used in the modeling: oil and water recovery by years and liquid withdrawal, development rate and the number of wells drilled in the development cycle. For the active involvement of stagnant areas in development, a method for determining the optimal moment of impact on an oil deposit is proposed. At a late stage of field development, special technologies that provide conditions for displacing residual oil are the most effective. Injection of a water-gas mixture into field objects and periodic impact on layers is considered appropriate for increasing oil recovery from deposits. The effectiveness of the adopted approaches to optimizing the development system is assessed as moderate. Using these approaches, it is possible to increase oil recovery by 5-6%.

The paper presents experimental results of studying capillary displacement curves in chemical methods of enhancing oil recovery. The analysis of the theory of capillary number and changes in this parameter in chemical methods of enhancing oil recovery is carried out. The results of studies of capillary displacement curves are analyzed, and general patterns and features of the behavior of these curves in various experimental conditions are revealed. The analysis showed that with a change in formation wettability, porosity, permeability, and pore structure, the capillary displacement curves change. Under changing formation conditions, classical capillary displacement curves previously obtained in the course of basic experiments do not allow predicting residual oil saturation, and in addition, the maximum oil recovery does not correspond to the maximum values of capillary numbers. In the practice of oil field development, there is no need to use high concentrations of surfactants to reduce the surface tension to an ultra-low level. Addition of polymer, and alkali (in appropriate concentration) provides high oil recovery due to interaction of surfactants, polymer and alkali. Currently, in China, ASP flooding technology (alkaline-surfactant-polymer flooding – alkaline flooding and combined use of alkali, surfactant, and polymer) is the most effective method of enhancing oil recovery in flooded oil fields and gives good results. Therefore, it is necessary to study the micromechanisms of residual oil mobility and filtration. Studies of the capillary displacement curve, considering the structure of the reservoir and its basic filtration characteristics, are of decisive importance in the development of oil fields in China, and these curves can also be used in world practice as a basis for enhancing oil recovery.

The article presents a petrophysical justification for using the method of reflected electromagnetic waves (electromagnetic common depth point method (ECDP)) to differentiate geological sections by electrical properties, including the study of cryolithozones, as well as permafrost and sub-permafrost waters. An analysis of the results of the ECDP experimental work on the territory of an oil and gas field in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) in 2023 was carried out, including a study of the obtained distribution of the interval velocity of the electromagnetic signal with depth in a number of measurements. The result of data processing is presented in the form of a “virtual well” – a vertical distribution of specific electrical resistivity with a resolution of 2–5 m in depth. The reliability of the ECDP results is confirmed by their stable correspondence with all measured data and geological information from depths of at least 500 m, in particular, the nature of frozen rock occurrence and the position of watersaturated rocks. The advantages of the ECDP are shown, such as sensitivity of the parameter under study (the velocity of the electromagnetic signal) to changes in the physical properties of rocks, increased detail, and the non-requirement of a priori geological and geophysical information for quantitative interpretation of measurement data.

Permafrost stores large amounts of natural gas in free and hydrate (clathrate) forms. Intrapermafrost gas hydrates were revealed in frozen core samples recovered from test, exploration, and production wells in the Arctic oil and gas fields. Being similar to ice in many respects, gas hydrates can be mute for geophysical surveys. Meanwhile, laboratory experiments show that the presence of a gas hydrate component in pore moisture affects considerably some parameters of frozen sediments, as well as processes in evolving permafrost. Hydrate-bearing permafrost has a lower thermal conductivity and permeability but a higher geomechanic strength than hydrate-free frozen ground. Gas hydrates also influence some geophysical variables, such as electrical resistivity which becomes higher at higher hydrate contents.Accumulation of gas hydrates changes the relative percentages of pore moisture components (ice-hydrate-liquid water) in systems comprising ice, free gas, and gas hydrates, which has bearing on the physical properties of permafrost. The presence of gas hydrates increases the strength and resistivity of permafrost and, on the other hand, tends to reduce its permeability and the rates of heat and mass transfer.

Russia has the largest natural gas resource base. At the same time, a significant part of the gas reserves are classified as hard-to-recover reserves (HRR), and its supply to the market (primarily by pipeline transport) in modern conditions is associated with overcoming serious obstacles. Therefore, one of the key priorities for the development of the industry should be the production of high-tech gas – gas extracted from HRR or supplied to the market in the form of liquefied natural gas (LNG). Its production involves the use of both innovative technologies and new forms of coordination of participants in the processes of its production.Projects for the production of high-tech gas can be successfully implemented only if a number of restrictions are removed. Particularly noteworthy are: (1) technological problems, the solution of which requires the use of new types of equipment, materials and services; (2) organizational and economic problems associated with an increased level of costs.The authors’ estimates show that the provision of additional tax preferences for the development of hard-to-recover gas – Achimov and Jurassic deposits – allows projects for their development to reach the level of profitability required by investors. At the same time, the state’s tax revenues will be at the level of income received from the production of a similar volume of Cenomanian gas. This effect is associated with the mandatory inclusion of gas condensate in the composition of target products. In turn, when implementing LNG projects, even in the case of tax preferences, the state’s revenues are no lower than with the existing taxation of gas production and its supply by pipeline transport. This circumstance is due to the fact that LNG-projects are characterized by higher capital intensity and greater flexibility in the directions of supply and subsequent use of liquefied gas.It is shown that in order to increase the extraction and production of high-tech gas, an important role is played by the formation of conditions for the accelerated development of related industries, primarily oil and gas field services and mechanical engineering, which can only be ensured through close cooperation between the participants using indicative planning mechanisms.

The Palaeoproterozoic crystalline basement is overlain by the Baltic Basin. Lithuania is situated in the shallow eastern periphery and grades into the deep part of the basin, which comprises a number oil fields; the thickness of the sedimentary cover varies from 0.2 to 2.3 km. The Mesoproterozoic granitoid intrusions of different scales were discovered in the crystalline basement. In total, thirteen intrusions were defined on the gravity and magnetic maps and studied by abundant deep boreholes drilled in Lithuania. The recent dating revealed several phases of magmatic activity ranging from 1625 to 1445 Ma. No systematic lateral and temporal distribution of intrusions was noticed. The intrusions comprise sub-alkaline I-type diorites and quartz monzodiorites, granodiorites, and granites. The radiogenic granitoids are characterized by anomalous heat production ranging from 2.8 to 18.2 μW/m3 (average 7.26 μW/m3). The shoshonitic series correlates with high heat production. Furthermore, the Th series is documented in west Lithuanian (WLD) intrusions, while Th-U-enriched granitoids show high heat production in east Lithuania (LBB) domains. The high iron (magnetite) content of the Mesoproterozoic magmatic rocks accounts for specific high magnetic field anomalies. The most voluminous intrusions are mapped in the West Lithuanian Geothermal Anomaly, which is the most spectacular geothermal feature recognized in the East European Platform.

The present paper is devoted to the study of geological peculiarities of carbonate productive formations of oil fields and identification of correlations between filtration and capacitive properties of reservoirs with complex structure of void space. The dependence of reservoir permeability on its porosity, called petrophysical, is used in solving a wide range of problems, including geological and hydrodynamic modeling. Carbonate reservoirs have a complex void structure, which causes ambiguous petrophysical dependence and, consequently, insufficient reliability of calculations based on their application. Thus, with respect to the reservoir considered in this article, the standard petrophysical dependence is constructed differentially for pore and fracture type of reservoir voidness and is characterized by the values of the determination coefficient R2 =0,81 and R2 =0,16, respectively. An extended set of laboratory studies of carbonate core samples from one of the fields of the Perm region, including nuclear magnetic resonance, scanning electron microscopy, and X-ray computed tomography, allowed us to develop new dependencies that are valid for all types of voids and more closely link the filtration and capacitive characteristics of the reservoir (the coefficient of determination R2 exceeds 0,92). The feasibility of using the developed equations was confirmed by conducting a computational experiment using a geological and hydrodynamic model of the considered reservoir. Replacement of the standard petrophysical dependence with the dependences obtained in the article allowed to improve the prognostic ability of the model for both differential and integral development indicators (annual and cumulative oil production, respectively). The results of the study and the applied approaches can be used in solving the problems of designing and modeling the development of carbonate reservoirs to improve the quality of adaptation of historical data in geologic-hydrodynamic models, as well as increasing the degree of reliability of the performed calculations due to a more detailed consideration of the features of the structure of the void space of the rock relative to traditional methods.

Selenium (Se) is an essential trace element for human, but its low availability in soils results in its inadequacy in edible crops, thereby limiting its human intake. However, the role of the plant growth-promoting bacteria in soil Se availability and the pathways involved in biofortification in edible plants remain poorly understood. In this study, a Se-tolerant, plant growth-promoting bacterium, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain G02, which activates Se was isolated from the soils in Se-rich fields in Guangxi, China. We employed soil microcosm and potted experiments, along with metabolomics and 16S rRNA sequencing, to investigate how strain G02 incubation promotes elemental Se (0) solubilization, soil Se activation, and Se enrichment in lettuce. The strain G02 exhibited high phosphate solubilization (87.36 mg/L), IAA production (8.35 mg/L), as well as siderophore and ACC deaminase activities. Strain G02 is capable of dissolved Se(0) and Se minerals, increased pH, and secreted metabolites enhancing Se solubility. Soil microcosm experiments showed that the incubation of strain G02 increased available Se forms [soluble selenium (SOL-Se) and exchangeable selenium (EXC-Se)] in soil. Moreover, potted experiments revealed that the incubation of strain G02 increased biomass, Se concentration in lettuce, soil enzyme activities, beneficial microbial abundance and the native bacterial taxa. The strain G02 enhances soil Se availability through metabolites secretion, Se solubilization, and rhizosphere microbial regulation, improving ability of lettuce to absorb and transport Se. This study provides novel insights into the microbially mediated Se biofortification.

Background: PVT modeling is a critical step in reserve estimation and reservoir simulation of oil and gas fields. Accurate reproduction of fluid properties under different pressure–temperature conditions increases confidence in calculations and improves production forecasts. The accuracy of a PVT model largely depends on the quality of laboratory fluid data, while inconsistencies or errors in experimental results can reduce the reliability of calculated parameters. Aim: To evaluate the quality and reliability of laboratory data on reservoir fluids from the Cretaceous horizons and to validate consistent PVT regions for model development. Materials and methods: The quality and reliability of laboratory studies were evaluated using PVTsim software and methodological guidelines for validating reservoir fluid properties, where fluid composition and properties were analyzed based on equations of state. Results: Analysis of bottomhole and recombined samples showed clear relationships between reservoir fluid properties. Several PVT regions with distinct characteristics were identified. Comparison of simulation results with laboratory data revealed discrepancies, particularly in the measured density of Albian horizon oil. Reservoir oil parameters were adjusted using the PVT model. Conclusion: This approach removed unreliable laboratory data, provided a more accurate description of reservoir fluid properties, and updated calculation parameters to refine resource estimates.

Background: Currently, a significant portion of the oil fields in Kazakhstan are at the final stages of development, characterised by a steady decline in oil production and a progressive increase in water cut. These processes greatly diminish the efficiency of reservoir operation and make managing hydrocarbon displacement systems more complex. Under current conditions, technologies aimed at limiting and isolating water inflows are becoming increasingly relevant as a key element in enhancing the efficiency of field development. One promising approach in this area is the use of gel-polymer systems capable of selectively blocking highly permeable, water-saturated zones and redirecting filtration flows toward oil-saturated intervals. This allows for a significant increase in oil recovery and improves the technical and economic performance of reservoir development. Aim: The study aims to investigate the cross-linking process of polymer gels and to evaluate the key parameters of this process using various methods. Materials and methods: Special attention has been paid to the development and implementation of a rheological method for accurate quantitative determination of gel cross-linking time, which significantly enhances the objectivity and reproducibility of results compared to traditional visual assessment, which is currently the only generally accepted method. Results: It has been established that visually complete crosslinking occurs in 1.5–2 hours after the preparation of solutions. At the same time, rheometric measurements showed that crosslinking occurred significantly earlier. This confirms the higher accuracy and sensitivity of the instrumental method. Conclusion: The studies confirmed that rheometric methods allow high-precision determination of the time and degree of polymer crosslinking, which is impossible with visual assessment. This provides operators with more reliable information about the gel structure formation process and allows them to control the key parameters of gel formation at early stages. The data obtained emphasise the importance of rheometry as a reliable tool for objective evaluation of polymer crosslinking. Such evaluation plays a crucial role in the design and implementation of gel-polymer systems in oil recovery enhancement technology, especially in conditions of complicated geology and high water cut.

Nowadays, most of the heavy oil fields around the world have entered difficult exploiting stages, with problems regarding high viscosity and poor fluidity. However, there has been little previous research on the accurate identification and distribution of remaining oil with different levels of steam dryness. Therefore, this paper proposes a new nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) interpretation method, as well as a new samples analysis method for remaining oil in the core. We conducted core displacement experiments using different methods. The nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) tests and analysis of core thin sections after steam flooding were used to study the effect of different steam dryness levels on the migration and sedimentation mechanisms of heavy oil components. The results showed that the viscosity of crude oil and the permeability of rock cores are both sensitive to steam dryness; therefore, the improvement of steam dryness is beneficial for improving oil recovery. Heavy oil is mainly distributed in the medium pores of 10–50 μm and the small pores of 1–10 μm. However, with the decrease in steam dryness, the dynamic amount of crude oil in both medium and small pores decreases, and the bitumen in crude oil stays in the pores in the form of stars, patches, and envelopes, which leads to a decline in oil displacement efficiency. Thus, our study provides a micro-level understanding of remaining oil which lays the foundation for the further enhancement of oil recovery in heavy oilfields.

Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB), ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA), and comammox Nitrospira have been considered to coexist in acidic soils, oxidizing ammonia within their respective niches. However, their relative contributions to soil nitrification, as well as their properties and ecological roles in acidic soils, remain poorly understood. This study focused on AOB in acidic tea field soils, investigating their ecology and physiology through metagenomic analysis and the genomic and physiological characterization of AOB isolates. β-AOB were significantly more abundant than γ-AOB and AOA in soil layers with the highest potential for nitrification activity, indicating that β-AOB play a key role in acidic tea soil. Diversity analysis of this dominant group identified Nitrosospira as the major genus present in tea fields, and four pure strains representing some of the main operational taxonomic units in this environment were isolated. Physiological and genetic characterization of these isolates revealed some distinct traits compared to other species of the genus and closely related taxa, suggesting adaptations that may contribute to niche differentiation and survival in acidic soils. These findings provide new insights into the ecological role of β-AOB in acidic soils and may inform strategies to manage soil nitrification and reduce nitrogen loss in agricultural ecosystems.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-18596-5.

A field experiment was conducted at Instructional cum Research Farm, Indira Gandhi Krishi VisHand weedingavidyalaya, Raipur (C.G.) during mansoon crop 2021 and 2022. The soil of experimental field was neutral in reaction, medium in organic carbon and low in available nitrogen, low in available phosphorus and high in available potassium. Experiment was laid out in randomized block design with three replications, consisted of T1-Imazethapyr 10 % SL (Dose-55 g a.i. ha-1), T2- Fluazifop-p-butyl 13.4% w w-1 (Dose-250 g a.i. ha-1), T3-Propaquizafop 2.5% w w-1 (weight per weight) + imazethapyr 3.75 % w w-1 ME (ready mix) (Dose-83.3g a.i. ha-1), T4- Acifluorfen-sodium 16.5% EC + clodinafop-propargyl 8% EC (ready mix) (Dose-210 g a.i. ha-1), T5- Fomesafen 11.1% w w-1 + fluazifop-p-butyl 11.1% w w-1 (ready mix) (Dose-440 g a.i. ha-1), T6-Hand weeding twice at 20 and 40 DAS (Days after sowing) , T7- Weed free (Hand weeding at 20, 40 and 60 DAS) and T8- Unweeded check. The weeds of the experimental site was dominated with grasses like Echinochloacolona, Dinebraretroflexa, broad leaves like Parthenium hysterophorus, Celosia argentea, sedge like Cyperus sps. and other weeds. Results revealed that all the yield attributes and yield was highest in fomesafen 11.1% w w-1 + fluazifop-p-butyl 11.1% w w-1 (ready mix) (Dose-440 g a.i. ha-1) (T5) which was at par with propaquizafop 2.5% w w-1 + imazethapyr 3.75 % w w-1 ME (ready mix) (Dose-83.3g a.i. ha-1)(T3) and acifluorfen-sodium 16.5% EC + clodinafop-propargyl 8% EC (ready mix) (Dose-210 g a.i. ha-1)(T4). Similar ways, weed density was also significantly reduced in these treatments to others. However, higher WCE (Weed control efficiency) was noticed in this treatment than unweeded check.