Offspring Cognitive Development Research Articles

Placental inflammatory cytokines mRNA expression and preschool children’s cognitive performance: a birth cohort study in China

BackgroundThe immunologic milieu at the maternal–fetal interface has profound effects on propelling the development of the fetal brain. However, accessible epidemiological studies concerning the association between placental inflammatory cytokines and the intellectual development of offspring in humans are limited. Therefore, we explored the possible link between mRNA expression of inflammatory cytokines in placenta and preschoolers’ cognitive performance.MethodsStudy subjects were obtained from the Ma’anshan birth cohort (MABC). Placental samples were collected after delivery, and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) was utilized to measure the mRNA expression levels of IL-8, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, CRP, IFN-γ, IL-10, and IL-4. Children’s intellectual development was assessed at preschool age by using the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV). Multiple linear regression and restricted cubic spline models were used for statistical analysis.ResultsA total of 1665 pairs of mother and child were included in the analysis. After adjusting for confounders and after correction for multiple comparisons, we observed that mRNA expression of IL-8 (β = − 0.53; 95% CI, − 0.92 to − 0.15), IL-6 (β = − 0.58; 95% CI, − 0.97 to − 0.19), TNF-α (β = − 0.37; 95% CI, − 0.71 to − 0.02), and IFN-γ (β = − 0.31; 95% CI, − 0.61 to − 0.03) in the placenta was negatively associated with preschoolers’ full scale intelligence quotient (FSIQ). Both higher IL-8 and IL-6 were associated with lower children’s low fluid reasoning index (FRI), and higher IFN-γ was associated with lower children’s working memory index (WMI). After further adjusting for confounders and children’s age at cognitive testing, the integrated index of six pro-inflammatory cytokines (index 2) was found to be significantly and negatively correlated with both the FSIQ and each sub-dimension (verbal comprehension index (VCI), visual spatial index (VSI), FRI, WMI, processing speed index (PSI)). Sex-stratified analyses showed that the association of IL-8, IFN-γ, and index 2 with children’s cognitive development was mainly concentrated in boys.ConclusionsEvidence of an association between low cognitive performance and high expression of placental inflammatory cytokines (IL-8, IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-γ) was found, highlighting the potential importance of intrauterine placental immune status in dissecting offspring cognitive development.

Associations between parental adherence to healthy lifestyles and cognitive performance in offspring: A prospective cohort study in China.

Previous studies have reported associations of specific maternal and paternal lifestyle factors with offspring's cognitive development during early childhood. This study aimed to investigate the prospective associations between overall parental lifestyle and offspring's cognitive performance during adolescence and young adulthood in China. We included 2531 adolescents aged 10-15 years at baseline in 2010 from the China Family Panel Studies. A healthy parental lifestyle score (ranged 0-5) was constructed based on the following five modifiable lifestyle factors: Smoking, drinking, exercise, sleep, and diet. Generalized estimating equation models were used to examine the association between baseline parental healthy lifestyle scores and offspring's fluid and crystallized intelligence in subsequent years (2012, 2014, 2016, and 2018). Offspring in the top tertile of parental healthy lifestyle scores performed better in overall fluid intelligence (multivariable-adjusted β = 0.53, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.29-0.77) and overall crystallized intelligence (multivariable-adjusted β = 0.35, 95% CI: 0.16-0.54) than those in the bottom tertile of parental healthy lifestyle scores. The results were similar after further adjustment for the offspring's healthy lifestyle scores and persisted across the subgroups of parental socioeconomic status. Additionally, maternal and paternal healthy lifestyle scores were independently associated with better offspring's cognitive performance, with significant contribution observed for paternal never-smoking, weekly exercise, and diversified diet. When both parents and offspring adhered to a healthier lifestyle, we observed the highest level of the offspring's overall crystallized intelligence. Our study indicates that parental adherence to a healthier lifestyle is associated with significantly better offspring's cognitive performance during adolescence and early adulthood, regardless of socioeconomic status. These findings highlight the potential cognitive benefits of promoting healthy lifestyles among parents of adolescents.

The association between maternal prenatal vitamin B12 intake and child cognitive development

Abstract Background Nutrient deficiencies in diet during pregnancy may have an adverse effect on the development of offspring. The association between prenatal vitamin B12 intake and cognitive functioning in children is unclear. Therefore, we examined such association in Czech children. Methods Czech part of European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood is a population-based prospective longitudinal birth cohort study of pregnant women and their children enrolled in 1991-1992. Dietary data was measured at 32 weeks of gestation using 145 items self-reported food frequency questionnaire. Parents reported on their child's speech and language development at 18 months, 3, 5, and 7 years of age (outcomes ranging from n = 1891 to n = 2362), from which single scores for vocabulary, language, early communication, understanding, and intelligibility were calculated. Higher scores indicate better speech and language development. Data were analysed using multiple ordinal and logistic regression models. Results Higher prenatal vitamin B12 intake was associated with higher speech and language test scores in fully adjusted models. Children of mothers with higher B12 intake had increased likelihood of higher scores in vocabulary (OR = 1.06, 95% CI: 1.01; 1.11), language (OR = 1.05, 95% CI: 1.01; 1.10), early communication (OR = 1.06, 95% CI: 1.01; 1.11) and understanding (OR = 1.09, 95% CI: 1.04; 1.14) at 18 months of age. Furthermore, they were more likely to get maximum points in the intelligibility test at age 3 (OR = 1.08, 95% CI: 1.02; 1.14) opposed to children of mothers with lower B12 intake. There were no associations at 5 and 7 years. Conclusions We found consistent and significant associations between prenatal vitamin B12 intake and early speech and language development. The results suggest that a diet during pregnancy low in vitamin B12 may negatively affect children's cognitive development. Thus, a healthy pregnancy diet with sufficient vitamin B12 should be promoted. Key messages • A diet low in vitamin B12 during pregnancy may have negative effects on the cognitive development of offspring, according to a longitudinal birth cohort study. • Adequate prenatal vitamin B12 intake is important for cognitive development, particularly speech and language development.

Effect of Sleep Restriction during Pregnancy on Fetal Brain Programming and Neurocognitive Development of Offspring: A Review

We spend one-third of our lives in sleep, yet the core function of it still remains an enigma due to underlying complex neural processing in this altered state of consciousness. Sleep requirement varies with phase of development. Neonates spent about 85% of their time in sleep, which is polyphasic in nature. Gradually, this pattern takes the shape of a monophasic sleep in adolescents and adults, with changing micro- and macroarchitecture in every phase. Deprivation of sleep in adults impairs learning and memory, and reduces theta coherence among hippocampus and amygdale during sleep. However, sleep loss during pregnancy can affect the ontogenetic development of networks for sleep–wakefulness and the cognitive development of offspring. Even in normal pregnancy, poor sleep quality, reduced rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and sleep fragmentation are common observation during the last trimester of pregnancy. Delta power, a marker for the homeostatic drive for sleep, in the NREM sleep during the last trimester of pregnancy and postpartum is increased. However, further sleep loss during late pregnancy is a growing concern. Neonates that are born to the total sleep-restricted dams present significant alterations in their emotional development (symptoms of hyperactivity, increased risk-taking behavior during periadolescence) and immature sleep–wakefulness patterns. The REM sleep restriction during late pregnancy elicits depressionlike traits in neonates, which persist until middle age. For a healthy development of brain and body, thorough understanding of the dynamic nature of sleep in relation to age and state (pregnancy) is instrumental in preventing the above-mentioned conditions of prenatal origin. Although sleep is essential for an active brain (for work during day), it remains an underestimated phenomenon. This review highlights the importance of sleep during pregnancy for a healthy brain network programming in offspring.

Prenatal and Postnatal Maternal Depressive Symptoms Are Associated With White Matter Integrity in 5-Year-Olds in a Sex-Specific Manner

BackgroundPrenatal and postnatal maternal psychological distress predicts various detrimental consequences on social, behavioral, and cognitive development of offspring, especially in girls. Maturation of white matter (WM) continues from prenatal development into adulthood and is thus susceptible to exposures both before and after birth. MethodsWM microstructural features of 130 children (mean age, 5.36 years; range, 5.04–5.79 years; 63 girls) and their association with maternal prenatal and postnatal depressive and anxiety symptoms were investigated with diffusion tensor imaging, tract-based spatial statistics, and regression analyses. Maternal questionnaires were collected during first, second, and third trimesters and at 3, 6, and 12 months postpartum with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) for depressive symptoms and Symptom Checklist-90 for general anxiety. Covariates included child’s sex; child’s age; maternal prepregnancy body mass index; maternal age; socioeconomic status; and exposures to smoking, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, and synthetic glucocorticoids during pregnancy. ResultsPrenatal second-trimester EPDS scores were positively associated with fractional anisotropy in boys (p < .05, 5000 permutations) after controlling for EPDS scores 3 months postpartum. In contrast, postpartum EPDS scores at 3 months correlated negatively with fractional anisotropy (p < .01, 5000 permutations) in widespread areas only in girls after controlling for prenatal second-trimester EPDS scores. Perinatal anxiety was not associated with WM structure. ConclusionsThese results suggest that prenatal and postnatal maternal psychological distress is associated with brain WM tract developmental alterations in a sex- and timing-dependent manner. Future studies including behavioral data are required to consolidate associative outcomes for these alterations.

Maternal prenatal psychological distress and motor/cognitive development in two-year-old offspring: The Japan Environment and Children's Study.

Maternal prenatal psychological distress, including depression and anxiety, may affect offspring's motor/cognitive development. However, research findings have been inconsistent. We used a dataset from the Japan Environment and Children's Study to evaluate associations between maternal six-item Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K6) scores and motor/cognitive development among offspring at two years of age. Their offspring's motor/cognitive development was assessed using the Kyoto Scale of Psychological Development 2001. Records for 1859 male and 1817 female offspring were analyzed. The maternal K6 was administered twice during pregnancy: at a median of 14.6 weeks (M-T1) and 27.3 weeks (M-T2) of gestation. Multiple regression analysis was performed with the group with K6 scores ≤4 at both M-T1 and M-T2 as a reference. In the group with K6 scores ≥5 at both M-T1 and M-T2, male offspring had significantly lower developmental quotients (DQ) in the posture-motor area (partial regression coefficient [B]: -3.68, 95% confidence interval [CI]: -5.92 to -1.44) and language-social area (B: -1.93; 95%CI: -3.73 to -0.12), while female offspring had a lower DQ for the language-social area (B: -1.95; 95%CI: -3.73 to -0.17). In those with K6 scores ≥5 only at M-T1 or M-T2, male and female offspring did not differ significantly in DQ for any area. Continuous maternal psychological distress from the first to the second half of pregnancy was associated with lower motor and verbal cognitive development in male offspring and lower verbal cognitive development in female offspring at 2 years compared with the group without persistent maternal prenatal psychological distress.

Maternal Multiple Sclerosis and Offspring's Cognitive and Behavioral Development: What Do We Know until Now?

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic pathological condition representing one of the main causes of neurological disability in the female young population. MS, as an immune disorder, could impact fetus development, and, considering the need for and the possibility of pharmacological treatment during pregnancy, the possible influence of medication on developmental trajectories represents a topic of great interest. We provide an overview of the available literature on the influence of maternal Multiple Sclerosis on offspring cognitive and behavioral development. A study was conducted on Pubmed, Medline and Google Scholar, considering empirical studies and reviews exclusively in the English language. Maternal MS appears not to be associated with emotional and behavioral problems, as evaluated through retrospective studies. However, a specific cognitive and behavioral phenotype, through the administration of standardized instruments, has not been delineated yet. Available studies on the topic are characterized by poor methodology and do not lead to conclusions. This overview highlights implications for further longitudinal studies which should delineate offspring developmental trajectories, taking into consideration maternal confounding factors and the exposure to pharmacological treatment in pregnancy.

The intergenerational effects of parental physical activity on offspring brain and cognitive development: a scoping review

Introduction: Maternal preconception and prenatal health behaviours (e.g., diet, alcohol consumption, smoking, etc.) impact offspring neurodevelopment. Physical activity (PA) has been linked to improved maternal health during preconception, pregnancy, and postpartum and reduced risk of pregnancy complications. PA not only helps to improve physical health but can also enhance brain health and cognition across the lifespan. Accumulating evidence in animal models suggests PA also has intergenerational effects on brain health and development.

The reach of fertility decline: a longitudinal analysis of human capital gains across generations

The impact of fertility decline on economic development remains central to population studies. Recent scholarship emphasizes parental investment in education as a mediator. We further develop the theoretical foundation, and empirical evidence, for the role of child health—specifically how fertility changes promote children’s physical and cognitive development and thereby complement human capital accumulation through educational gains. We test this using a two-generation model applied to Indonesian longitudinal data from 1993 to 2015. Characteristics of modern fertility regimes—older maternal ages, longer interpregnancy intervals, and lower average birth orders—generally benefit offspring cognitive development and schooling. We estimate that family planning expansion, and the resulting shift in fertility traits, induced an average increase of 0.34 years of offspring educational attainment by age 18 years. Maximal maternal educational and family planning expansion would jointly produce a 1.12-year gain, including 0.20 years more directly attributable to fertility shifts. Evidence is strengthened in parallel simulations from models of within-mother shifts, in which fertility shifts resulted in a 0.16-year gain in offspring schooling. Findings contribute new evidence for the rounding effects of women’s education and family planning expansion on human capital formation through child health within families and across generations.

The effects of combined exposure of lead and stress during pregnancy on cognitive development in offspring

The effects of combined exposure of lead and stress during pregnancy on cognitive development in offspring

Impaired Cell Cycle Progression and Self-Renewal of Fetal Neural Stem and Progenitor Cells in a Murine Model of Intrauterine Growth Restriction

Individuals with intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) are at an increased risk for neurodevelopmental impairment. Fetal cortical neurogenesis is a time-sensitive process in which fetal neural stem cells (NSCs) follow a distinct pattern of layer-specific neuron generation to populate the cerebral cortex. Here, we used a murine maternal hypoxia-induced IUGR model to study the impact of IUGR on fetal NSC development. In this model, timed-pregnant mice were exposed to hypoxia during the active stage of neurogenesis, followed by fetal brain collection and analysis. In the IUGR fetal brains, we found a significant reduction in cerebral cortical thickness accompanied by decreases in layer-specific neurons. Using EdU labeling, we demonstrated that cell cycle progression of fetal NSCs was delayed, primarily observed in the G2/M phase during inward interkinetic nuclear migration. Following relief from maternal hypoxia exposure, the remaining fetal NSCs re-established their neurogenic ability and resumed production of layer-specific neurons. Surprisingly, the newly generated neurons matched their control counterparts in layer-specific marker expression, suggesting preservation of the fetal NSC temporal identity despite IUGR effects. As expected, the absolute number of neurons generated in the IUGR group remained lower compared to that in the control group due to a reduced fetal NSC pool size as a result of cell cycle defect. Transcriptome analysis identified genes related to energy expenditure and G2/M cell cycle progression being affected by maternal hypoxia-induced IUGR. Taken together, maternal hypoxia-induced IUGR is associated with a defect in cell cycle progression of fetal NSCs, and has a long-term impact on offspring cognitive development.

Maternal Infection can Affect Offspring Throughout Their Life, But Timing Plays a Role as to How

Early brain development marks a period of vulnerability during gestation that when disturbed, can lead to changes in physical, mental, social and cognitive development in offspring, including risk for neuropsychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia or autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (Meyer et al., 2006). These disturbances have an incredibly strong link to maternal infection, but more specifically, the body’s cytokine-associated immune response. Studies show a direct link between an excess of cytokines and changes (behavior reminiscent of ASD, schizophrenia, and obsessiveness) in the offspring, although cytokines aren’t the only major factor at play. Different trimesters of gestation open up different periods of vulnerability to the developing fetus during which cytokines in the fetal brain may respond in different ways that can lead to dysfunction in the offspring (Meyer et al., 2006). One group in particular conducted a study of mice to demonstrate how infection during the first or second trimester of pregnancy can have different effects on the offspring and their behavioral development later in life.

Maternal prenatal psychological distress and vitamin intake with children's neurocognitive development.

Maternal prenatal psychological distress (PPD) is increasingly linked to sub-optimal child neurodevelopment. Daily intake of prenatal vitamin during pre-conception and early pregnancy may ameliorate the effects of PPD on cognition in the offspring. PPD was assessed in early (12-16 weeks) and late (28-32 weeks) gestation in the Ontario Birth Study. Prenatal vitamin supplement intake information was collected in early gestation. Child cognition at 4 years was assessed using the NIH Toolbox. Poisson regression was used to investigate associations between PPD and/or prenatal vitamin intake and child cognition. Four hundred and eighteen mother-child dyads were assessed. Moderate-severe PPD experienced during early gestation was associated with reduced cognition (adjusted incidence rate ratio (IRRadj) = 3.71, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.57-8.77, P = 0.003). Daily intake of prenatal vitamins was not associated with cognition (IRRadj = 1.34, 95% CI: 0.73-2.46, P = 0.34). Upon stratification, the experience of mild-severe PPD with daily intake of prenatal vitamins was associated with higher incident rates of suboptimal cognition compared to children of women with daily prenatal vitamin intake without any episode of PPD (IRRadj = 2.88, 95% CI: 1.1-7.4). Moderate-severe PPD in early pregnancy is associated with poor cognition in children and daily intake of prenatal vitamin did not ameliorate this association. Our findings expand on existing literature by highlighting that exposure to prenatal psychological distress (PPD), in moderate-to-severe form, in the early stages of pregnancy, can have detrimental effects on the offspring's cognitive development at 4 years. Overall, prenatal vitamin intake did not ameliorate the effects of PPD. Early screening and treatment of prenatal maternal mental illness is crucial.

Maternal prenatal choline and inflammation effects on 4-year-olds’ performance on the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-IV

Maternal gestational inflammation from infection, obesity, depression, and adverse childhood experiences negatively affects offspring cognitive development. Choline is a key nutrient in fetal brain development. We investigated whether higher maternal plasma choline concentrations have a positive association with offspring cognition, specifically processing speed, in the presence of inflammation. Forty-eight children were evaluated at 4 years of age. Processing Speed Composite Score on the Wechsler Preschool & Primary Scales of Intelligence was the principal outcome. Maternal C-reactive protein (CRP), a marker of inflammation, and choline plasma concentration had been measured at 16 weeks' gestation. Choline concentrations >7.07μM were compared to lower levels. Mothers with lower choline levels reported more depression and stress. Head circumference was larger for neonates of mothers with higher choline levels. In analyses with maternal CRP, higher maternal choline was associated with higher offspring Processing Speed Composite Scores for both sexes. For males, higher maternal choline competed with the negative association of maternal CRP on Processing Speed. Higher Processing Speed was related to the child's behavioral ratings, with fewer Withdrawn Problems on the Child Behavior Checklist 1 ½-5 years at 4 years and higher Infant Behavior Questionnaire Orienting/Regulation at 3 months of age, consistent with persistent developmental effects. Higher processing speed and decreased problems in social withdrawal are positively associated with prenatal maternal choline. Both lower processing speed and social withdrawal problems are precursors to later mental difficulties. Choline supplementation in pregnancy may mitigate effects of maternal inflammation that contribute to problems in offspring's’ cognition and behavior.

Associations of parental depression during adolescence with cognitive development in later life in China: A population-based cohort study.

Prior research has underscored negative impacts of perinatal parental depression on offspring cognitive performance in early childhood. However, little is known about the effects of parental depression during adolescence on offspring cognitive development. This study used longitudinal data from the nationally representative China Family Panel Studies (CFPS). The sample included 2,281 adolescents aged 10-15 years (the median age was 13 years with an interquartile range between 11 and 14 years) in 2012 when their parents were surveyed for depression symptoms with the 20-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). The sample was approximately balanced by sex, with 1,088 females (47.7%). We examined the associations of parental depression in 2012 with offspring cognitive performance (measured by mathematics, vocabulary, immediate word recall, delayed word recall, and number series tests) in subsequent years (i.e., 2014, 2016, and 2018) using linear regression models, adjusting for various offspring (i.e., age, sex, and birth order), parent (i.e., parents' education level, age, whether living with the offspring, and employment status), and household characteristics (i.e., place of residence, household income, and the number of offspring). We found parental depression during adolescence to be significantly associated with worse cognitive performance in subsequent years, in both crude and adjusted models. For example, in the crude models, adolescents whose mothers had depression symptoms in 2012 scored 1.0 point lower (95% confidence interval [CI]: -1.2 to -0.8, p < 0.001) in mathematics in 2014 compared to those whose mothers did not have depression symptoms; after covariate adjustment, this difference marginally reduced to 0.8 points (95% CI: -1.0 to -0.5, p < 0.001); the associations remained robust after further adjusting for offspring earlier cognitive ability in toddlerhood (-1.2, 95% CI: -1.6, -0.9, p < 0.001), offspring cognitive ability in 2012 (-0.6, 95% CI: -0.8, -0.3, p < 0.001), offspring depression status (-0.7, 95% CI: -1.0, -0.5, p < 0.001), and parents' cognitive ability (-0.8, 95% CI: -1.2, -0.3, p < 0.001). In line with the neuroplasticity theory, we observed stronger associations between maternal depression and mathematical/vocabulary scores among the younger adolescents (i.e., 10-11 years) than the older ones (i.e., 12-15 years). For example, the association between maternal depression and 2014 vocabulary scores was estimated to be -2.1 (95% CI: -2.6, -1.6, p < 0.001) in those aged 10-11 years, compared to -1.2 (95% CI: -1.6, -0.8, p < 0.001) in those aged 12-15 years with a difference of 0.9 (95% CI: 0.2, 1.6, p = 0.010). We also observed a stronger association of greater depression severity with worse mathematical scores. The primary limitations of this study were the relatively high attrition rate and residual confounding. In this study, we observed that parental depression during adolescence was associated with adverse offspring cognitive development assessed up to 6 years later. These findings highlight the intergenerational association between depression in parents and cognitive development across the early life course into adolescence.

Maternal mild thyroid dysfunction and offspring cognitive and motor development from infancy to childhood: the Rhea mother–child cohort study in Crete, Greece

BackgroundMaternal thyroid hormones’ supply is crucial for fetal neurodevelopment; however, the role of maternal mild thyroid dysfunction is not clear. We aimed to assess the association of maternal mild thyroid...

Higher maternal plasma β-cryptoxanthin concentration is associated with better cognitive and motor development in offspring at 2years of age.

Current literature on the roles of α-, β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin in neurocognitive function has largely focused on preventing cognitive decline in older people, and less on neuro-development in children. We examined the relations of maternal plasma carotenoids concentrations with offspring cognitive development up to age 4.5years in the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes mother-offspring cohort study. Maternal plasma α-, β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin concentrations at delivery were determined by ultra-performance liquid chromatography. Children's cognition was assessed at ages 2 (Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development) and 4.5 (Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test) years. Associations were examined in 419 mother-offspring pairs using linear regressions adjusting for key confounders. Median and interquartile range of maternal plasma concentrations (mg/L) were: α-carotene 0.052 (0.032, 0.081), β-carotene 0.189 (0.134, 0.286), and β-cryptoxanthin 0.199 (0.123, 0.304). In 2years old children, higher maternal carotenoids [per standard deviation (SD) log-concentration] were positively associated with neurocognitive functions: β-cryptoxanthin with higher scores in cognitive [β = 0.18, (0.08, 0.28) SD], receptive language [β = 0.17 (0.07, 0.27) SD], fine motor [β = 0.16 (0.05, 0.26) SD], and gross motor [β = 0.16 (0.06, 0.27) SD] scales; β-carotene with higher cognitive score [β = 0.17 (0.05, 0.29) SD]. No significant associations were observed with neurocognitive functions at age 4.5years. Our study provides novel data suggesting a potential role of prenatal carotenoids, particularly β-cryptoxanthin, on early offspring cognitive and motor development. Whether the prenatal influences sustain beyond early childhood requires further investigation in longer term studies.

Neuroendocrine and immune markers of maternal stress during pregnancy and infant cognitive development.

Antenatal exposure to maternal stress is a factor that may impact on offspring cognitive development. While some evidence exists of an association between maternal antenatal depressive or anxiety symptoms and infants' cognitive outcomes, less is known about the role of biological indices of maternal antenatal stress in relation to infant cognitive development. The current study investigated the association between maternal depressive and anxiety symptoms, stress and inflammatory markers during pregnancy and infant's cognitive development in a sample of 104 healthy pregnant women (mean gestational age=34.76; SD=1.12) and their 12-week-old infants (mean postnatal weeks=11.96; SD=1.85). Maternal depressive and anxiety symptoms were evaluated during pregnancy, alongside measurements of serum Interleukin-6 (IL-6), C-Reactive Protein (CRP), salivary cortisol, and alpha amylase (sAA) concentrations. Infant cognitive development, maternal caregiving and concurrent anxiety or depressive symptoms were assessed 12weeks after delivery. Hierarchical linear regressions indicated that higher maternal diurnal cortisol and CRP levels were independently associated with lower infant cognitive development scores, while adjusting for infant gender and gestational age, maternal IQ, caregiving, depressive, or anxiety symptoms. Though correlational, findings seem suggestive of a role for variation in maternal biological stress signals during pregnancy in influencing infants' early cognitive development.

Relationships of maternal plasma pro-vitamin A carotenoids and children's neurocognitive outcomes

AbstractIntroductionPro-vitamin A carotenoids namely α-, β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin have potential roles in neurocognitive development, but current literature on these carotenoids mainly focused on preventing cognitive decline in the elderly. This study examined the associations of maternal plasma pro-vitamin A carotenoids concentrations with offspring cognitive development up to 54 months in the GUSTO mother-offspring cohort study.Materials and MethodsMaternal plasma pro-vitamin A carotenoids concentrations at delivery were determined by ultra-performance liquid chromatography. At age 24 months, the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (BSID-III) was used to assess children's development for the following domains: cognitive, receptive and expressive language, and fine and gross motor. At age 54 months, the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (KBIT-2) was used to assess children's verbal and non-verbal intelligence. Associations of maternal pro-vitamin A carotenoids with offspring cognitive development at each time point were examined in 419 mother-offspring pairs using linear regressions adjusted for confounders (e.g. maternal demographics, antenatal mental health and breastfeeding duration).ResultsMedian (IQR) maternal plasma concentrations (mg/L) were: α-carotene 0.052 (0.032–0.081), β-carotene 0.189 (0.134–0.286), and β-cryptoxanthin 0.199 (0.123–0.304). In 24 months old infants, higher maternal β-cryptoxanthin (per SD increment) were associated with higher scores in most of BSID-III domains: cognitive [β 0.18, (0.08, 0.28) SD], receptive language [β 0.17 (0.07, 0.27) SD], fine motor [β 0.16 (0.06, 0.27) SD], and gross motor [β 0.16 (0.06, 0.27) SD]. Additionally, a 1-SD increment in maternal β-carotene concentrations were associated with 0.16 SD higher scores in BSID-III cognitive domain (95%: 0.04, 0.28), which was attenuated after adjusting for breastfeeding duration. No significant associations were observed between maternal α-carotene concentrations and BSID-III in children at 24 months of age, or between maternal pro-vitamin A carotenoids and KBIT-2 in children at 54 months of age.DiscussionOur study provides novel data suggesting a role of maternal pro-vitamin A carotenoids, especially β-cryptoxanthin, in offspring early cognitive development. This adds support to the importance of consuming sufficient amounts of red- and orange-coloured fruit and vegetables (rich sources of β-cryptoxanthin and β-carotene) during pregnancy. Further studies are required in other mother-offspring cohort with larger sample sizes, and intervention trials to confirm an effect of pro-vitamin A carotenoids on neurocognitive development.

Associations of maternal zinc and magnesium with offspring learning abilities and cognitive development at 4 years in GUSTO

ABSTRACT Objectives: Minerals deficiencies during pregnancy have been shown to be associated with poorer cognitive outcomes in offspring. This study aimed to investigate associations of maternal plasma zinc and magnesium concentrations with cognitive development in 4-year old children from the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcome cohort. Methods: Maternal plasma zinc and magnesium concentrations were measured at 26–28 weeks’ gestation. The Lollipop test of school readiness, tests of working memory, number knowledge, receptive vocabulary, and phonological awareness were performed in children at 4 years. Associations were examined in 715 mother-offspring pairs using linear regressions adjusted for key confounders. Results: Maternal plasma zinc and magnesium concentrations were 812 ± 144 µg/L and 19.9 ± 1.8 mg/L (mean±SD); 19% and 71% of mothers were zinc deficient and magnesium insufficient, respectively. After adjustment for multiple testing, higher maternal zinc concentrations (per SD increment) were associated with 0.35 higher scores in Lollipop subtest 2 of picture description and spatial identification (95% CI: 0.13, 0.58); higher maternal magnesium concentrations (per SD increment) were associated with 0.65 higher scores in Lollipop subtest 4 of letters and writing identification (95% CI: 0.23, 1.07). Discussion: No significant associations were observed for other tests, suggesting little long term influences of maternal zinc and magnesium on child's cognitive development.