Offshore Wind Energy Projects Research Articles

Viability of Creating an Offshore Wind Energy Cluster: A Case Study

Considering the advantages associated with the port sector concerning the potential of offshore wind energy, several international ports are aiming to achieve a solid integration in offshore wind energy clusters. This article performs an analysis of several seaports and offshore wind energy clusters in Europe to assess the feasibility of implementing an offshore wind energy cluster in the Port of Aveiro, Portugal. A deep literature review and a case study methodology were performed. Based on the analysis of the offshore energy market, and of the value chain of the company case study (ASM Offshore), it was concluded that the Portuguese market in this sector is not competitive, compared with other international markets. Nevertheless, the development of an offshore wind energy cluster could increase the included companie’s prospects, as well as dispute the growth of other companies associated with this sector. This research is relevant, because there is a lack of research that links the importance of seaports in offshore wind energy projects, in particular with a cluster structure, and because it contributes to knowledge for the development of the Aveiro region and Portugal, based on the exploitation of the renewable energy market and to the increase of related activities.

A new hybrid multi-criteria decision-making approach for location selection of sustainable offshore wind energy stations: A case study

Developments in wind energy projects have received much interest in the last decade due to the encouragement of sustainable development policies. Consequently, the number of wind energy projects has rapidly increased so that wind energy is an important part of an integrated power system. The success of an offshore wind energy project depends on the selection of the optimal offshore wind power station (OWPS) location, which is often determined through the use of multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM). There are, however, a number of shortcomings in the use of MCDM methods for site selection: 1) the incomplete utilization of information and loss of data in the decision-making process; and 2) the interaction issue in the neutrosophic vicinity is neglected. In this study, to address those shortcomings, we propose a new hybrid methodology for the selection of offshore wind power station location combining the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) and Preference Ranking Organization Method for Enrichment Evaluations (PROMETHEE)-II methods in the neutrosophic environment. First, a comprehensive index system of evaluation criteria is constructed of OWPS site selection. Then, the neutrosophic set is utilized in the specialist committee decision to express incomplete information. Furthermore, by gathering opinions of specialists, we take into consideration the interaction problem. Through the development of the hybrid method, this research presents rigorous methodological support for site selection in order to achieve benefits in coastal management. The proposed methodology for OWPS site selection is validated through the use of a case study from Egypt.

The Global Wind Resource Observed by Scatterometer

A 27-year-long calibrated multi-mission scatterometer data set is used to determine the global basin-scale and near-coastal wind resource. In addition to mean and percentile values, the analysis also determines the global values of both 50- and 100-year return period wind speeds. The analysis clearly shows the seasonal variability of wind speeds and the differing response of the two hemispheres. The maximum wind speeds in each hemisphere are comparable but there is a much larger seasonal cycle in the northern hemisphere. As a result, the southern hemisphere has a more consistent year-round wind climate. Hence, coastal regions of southern Africa, southern Australia, New Zealand and southern South America appear particularly suited to coastal and offshore wind energy projects. The extreme value analysis shows that the highest extreme wind speeds occur in the North Atlantic Ocean with extreme wind regions concentrated along the western boundaries of the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans and the Indian Ocean sector of the Southern Ocean. The signature of tropical cyclones is clearly observed in each of the well-known tropical cyclone basins.

Understanding community acceptance of a potential offshore wind energy project in different locations: An island-based analysis of ‘place-technology fit’

Understanding the factors influencing community acceptance of renewable energy projects such as offshore wind farms is important for achieving a transition to low carbon energy sources. However, to date community acceptance research has concentrated on responses to actual proposals, seeking to explain local objections. ‘Upstream’ research that investigates the ‘place-technology fit’ of a potential renewable energy project before it is proposed is scarce, yet can inform technology deployment by taking local knowledge and preferences into account. We address this gap in a study conducted in Guernsey, Channel Islands. Data was collected using a survey (n = 468) co-designed with island policy makers presenting technical, economic and locational details of a potential offshore wind project. Results show that acceptance of the same project design differed significantly across alternative development locations. Regression analyses compared the roles of personal, context and project-related factors in explaining acceptance for each site. Support for using wind energy for local electricity supply was the most important predictor of acceptance, and this variable mediated the relationship between island energy security and community acceptance. We conclude that place matters for community acceptance and that security and autonomy are co-benefits of local renewable energy projects that deserve further research.

Influence of structural design variations on economic viability of offshore wind turbines: An interdisciplinary analysis

Offshore wind energy is a seminal technology to achieve the goals set for renewable energy deployment. However, today's offshore wind energy projects are mostly not yet sufficiently competitive. The optimization of offshore wind turbine substructures with regard to costs and reliability is a promising approach to increase competitiveness. Today, interdisciplinary analyses considering sophisticated engineering models and their complex economic effects are not widespread. Existing approaches are deterministic. This research gap is addressed by combining an aero-elastic wind turbine model with an economic viability model for probabilistic investment analyses. The impact of different monopile designs on the stochastic cost-efficiency of an offshore wind farm is investigated. Monopiles are varied with regard to diameters and wall thicknesses creating designs with increased lifetimes but higher capital expenditures (durable designs) and vice versa (cheaper designs). For each substructure, the aero-elastic wind turbine model yields distributions for the fatigue lifetime and electricity yield and different capital expenditures, which are applied to the economic viability model. For other components, e.g. blades, constant lifetimes and costs are assumed. The results indicate that the gain of increased stochastic lifetimes exceeds the benefit of reduced initial costs, if the overall lifetime is not governed by other turbine components' lifetimes.

Stochastic financial appraisal of offshore wind farms

Increasing investment activity in offshore wind energy projects has induced the need for an improved appraisal framework of the assets. As opposed to the deterministic appraisal models currently available, a probabilistic analysis can provide decision support with assigned confidence levels, taking into account uncertainties inherent in the analysis. To this end, departing from an integrated lifecycle techno-economic model developed by the authors, the present study develops a probabilistic approach considering time-dependent and independent stochastic variables. To this end, advanced numerical methods, namely Artificial Neural Network (ANN) approximation model and an Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) time series model are combined with Monte Carlo simulations in order to assess the impact of the system uncertainties on the performance of the asset. Joint probability distributions of the output variables, namely the NPV, capital cost, annual operating cost and LCOE are presented, providing insights regarding the profitability of the asset within defined confidence intervals.

Renewable energy from the high seas: Geo-spatial modelling of resource potential and legal implications for developing offshore wind projects beyond the national jurisdiction of coastal States

Offshore wind energy projects are currently restricted to the exclusive economic zones of coastal States. Recent advances in technology are raising the prospect of utilising excellent wind resources on the high seas.Using a global geo-spatial model we identify potential resource areas for this. In the shallow water case for bottom fixed foundations the largest locations are found on the Mascarene Plateau in the Indian Ocean and the Grand Banks in the North Atlantic. The deep water case for floating platforms identifies the largest regions on the Grand Banks/Flemish Cap and Rockall Bank/Hatton Ridge, both in the North Atlantic. The overall legal framework for wind energy projects on the high seas is the United Nations Convention in the Law of the Sea. Flag states will play a central regulatory role for high seas wind energy developments. There is the danger that flags of convenience might evolve and unduly undercut environmental and safety standards that are in place for projects on the territorial sea and EEZ. Such abuse of high seas freedom could compromise the UNCLOS principle of ‘due regard’. Marine spatial planning approaches and the establishment of cooperative mechanisms, led by the IMO, could safeguard against such potential misappropriation.

The politics of Estonia’s offshore wind energy programme: Discourse, power and marine spatial planning

There is growing recognition that marine spatial planning is an inherently political process marked by a clash of discourses, power and conflicts of interest. Yet, there are very few attempts to make sense of and explain the political practices of marine spatial planning protests in different contexts, especially the way that planners and developers create the conditions for the articulation of objections, and then develop new strategies to negotiate and mediate community resistance. Using poststructuralist discourse theory, the article analyses the politics of a proposed offshore wind energy project in Estonia within the context of the country’s marine spatial planning processes. First, through the lens of politicization, it explores the strategies of political mobilization and the rival discourses of expertise and sustainability through which residents and municipal actors have contested the offshore wind energy project. Secondly, through the lens of depoliticization, it explains the discursive and legalistic strategies employed by developers, planners and an Administrative Court to displace – spatially and temporally – the core issues of contestation, thus legitimizing the offshore wind energy plan. We argue that the spaces created by the pre-planning conjuncture offered the most conducive conditions for residents to voice concerns about the proposed project in a dialogical fashion, whereas the marine spatial planning and post-planning phases became mired in a therapeutic-style consultation, set alongside rigid and unreflexive interpretations and applications of legality. We conclude by setting out the limits of the Estonian marine spatial planning as a process for resolving conflicts, while offering an alternative model of handling such public controversies, which we call pragmatic adversarialism.

A comprehensive evaluation of factors affecting the levelized cost of wave energy conversion projects

Abstract The primary objectives of this study are to evaluate the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) for different wave energy conversion strategies and to examine cost reduction pathways such that wave energy conversion projects are competitive, relative to alternative energy industries. The energy production of six different WEC devices was estimated for four sites along the U.S. Pacific coast. The LCOE of pilot-scale wave energy conversion projects was estimated to range between $0.07/kWh and $0.92/kWh higher than the target LCOE of those for early-market offshore wind energy projects. Device capacity factors were generally below the commonly assumed value of 30%. Methods of cost reduction to the target LCOE of $0.30/kWh were explored, including decreasing capital and operational expenditures (CAPEX and OPEX) and increasing annual energy production (AEP) through improvements in the wave energy resource and WEC and WEC array performance, and advanced controls. Results indicate that CAPEX and OPEX should be reduced by at least 45% and AEP should be increased by 200%. A reduction of CAPEX and OPEX by 75%, combined with array evaluation and control strategies capable of increasing AEP by 12%–55% could also result in LCOE for wave energy conversion projects of less than $0.30/kWh.

Creating a Public Plan for New York's Great Lakes Offshore Wind Power: A Strategy for Energy and Economic Development

This report evaluates the legal and policy considerations required for developing the energy resource of New York's Great Lakes Offshore Wind (NYGLOW). The potential economic development, environmental and energy benefits of NYGLOW are discussed and a strategy for siting, environmental review, and incentives to gain public acceptance and attract significant investment in NYGLOW is recommended, drawing on approaches used for developing Offshore Wind elsewhere in North America. The approaches of New Jersey, Texas, and Ontario are examined in some detail. In addition, the Quebec Provincial economic development model of purchasing wind power and requiring a local manufacturing component is discussed. Also, a strategy is offered for applying this Quebec model in New York without violating the dormant Commerce Clause of the U.S. Constitution. Financial incentives for offshore wind energy projects, including those of European countries, are considered. Finally, the report presents a comprehensive approach for New York State to follow, using its public energy agencies, the New York Power Authority and the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority, to lead a programmatic or generic environmental impact process that assesses the potential environmental, aesthetic, economic development, and energy development impacts of NYGLOW in a way that invites public participation.

The life-cycle energy and environmental emissions of a typical offshore wind farm in China

Abstract China's vast untapped offshore wind energy and the concentration of electricity consumers in coastal regions make offshore wind power a promising solution to the country's cleaner power transition. However, the potential energy and environmental emissions of offshore wind farms have not been thoroughly investigated. Thus, this study employed a process-based life cycle inventory (LCI) model to calculate the life-cycle energy and emissions of offshore wind power in China based on the country's first offshore wind energy project. Results showed that the life-cycle energy of the studied wind farm was 2.28E+09 MJ, or 0.39 MJ/kwh, with emission intensities of 25.5 g CO2-eq/kWh for GHG, 0.02 g/kWh for PM2.5, 0.06 g/kWh for SO2 and 0.09 g/kWh for NOx. The life-cycle footprints are dominated by the manufacture of wind turbines and foundation materials production. Compared to onshore wind farms, offshore wind power plants usually have greater life-cycle electricity yields, but their levelized energy and environmental footprints are less favorable. The green manufacturing of China's steel sector, and scientific operation and maintenance programs of wind facilities contribute to greening offshore wind power. Results of this study facilitate robust policy making of government authorities and contribute to the green deployment of offshore wind technologies in China.

Ocean beliefs and support for an offshore wind energy project

Wind turbines located in the ocean contribute to the ongoing global transition to renewable sources of electricity, but further expansion of this technology will depend as much on social acceptance as on technological know-how. This article explores how underlying values and beliefs about the ocean influence public support for offshore wind energy. An intercept survey was conducted with more than 600 individuals on Block Island, site of the first offshore wind farm in the United States. Following a values-beliefs-norm framework, this survey measured respondents' underlying values, anticipated impacts of the proposed wind energy project, attachment to the island, and beliefs about the ocean. The results indicate that ocean beliefs and underlying values have direct and indirect associations with expectations and support for an offshore wind energy project development. These findings provide insights into objections that arise over offshore wind farms, by acknowledging that the probability of conflict increases when one interpretation of the marine environment is imposed on people holding different beliefs about the ocean. Understanding these dynamics and integrating them into planning dialogues may be critical for successfully navigating the broader energy transition.

Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Off-Shore Wind Energy Project’s Risks

The benefits of wind power can solve the issue of growing power consumption with insufficient distribution facilities. Based on an extensive research on more than 20 studies, this study explores the risks associated with off-shore wind energy in Persian Gulf in Iran. This paper tries to identify the risks in related off-shore wind energy project, in order to specify which variables have the most impact on project by qualitative analysis through application of the impact and the possibility of every risk. A survey was conducted in order to determine the relative importance of variables and risks. Certain key components in completion of the project should be taken into account such as technology, research team, expert teams (personnel that have a good knowledge of this industry), and choosing the right spot where the wind farms will be located. The objective of this paper is to present the variables encountered in wind power project and to highlight the risks that must be controlled by the project developers, project team, supply chain actors, manufacturers, and all the stockholders involved in successful completion of a project.

Estimating the electricity prices, generation costs and CO2 emissions of large scale wind energy exports from Ireland to Great Britain

The share of wind generation in the Irish and British electricity markets is set to increase by 2020 due to renewable energy (RE) targets. The United Kingdom (UK) and Ireland have set ambitious targets which require 30% and 40% of electricity demand to come from RE, mainly wind, by 2020, respectively. Ireland has sufficient indigenous onshore wind energy resources to exceed the RE target, while the UK faces uncertainty in achieving its target. A possible solution for the UK is to import RE directly from large scale onshore and offshore wind energy projects in Ireland; this possibility has recently been explored by both governments but is currently on hold. Thus, the aim of this paper is to estimate the effects of large scale wind energy in the Irish and British electricity markets in terms of wholesale system marginal prices, total generation costs and CO2 emissions. The results indicate when the large scale Irish-based wind energy projects are connected directly to the UK there is a decrease of 0.6% and 2% in the Irish and British wholesale system marginal prices under the UK National Grid slow progression scenario, respectively.

Assessment of Offshore Wind Energy Projects in Denmark. A Comparative Study With Onshore Projects Based on Regulatory Real Options

There is a gap in the literature on the assessment of renewable energy projects regarding the role of regulatory real options (RROs) that do not depend entirely on the project promoter and yet affect the value of the project. This paper provides a methodology for evaluating investments in offshore wind generation in Denmark, based on the use of this type of options. The main results show that these RROs held by the administration, decrease the value of these renewable generation projects in Denmark. This confirms previous research for onshore generation in the same country.

Co-located wind-wave farm synergies (Operation & Maintenance): A case study

Operation and maintenance can jeopardise the financial viability of an offshore wind energy project due to the cost of downtime, repairs and, above all, the inevitable uncertainties. The variability of wave climate can impede or hinder emergency repairs when a failure occurs, and the resulting delays imply additional costs which ultimately reduce the competitiveness of offshore wind energy as an alternative to fossil fuels. Co-located wind turbines and Wave Energy Converters (WECs) are proposed in this paper as a novel solution: the reduction of the significant wave height brought about by the WECs along the periphery of the wind farm results in a milder wave climate within the farm. This reduction, also called shadow effect, enlarges weather windows for Operation & Maintenance (O&M). The objective of this paper is to investigate the increase in the accessibility time to the turbines and to optimise the layout for the co-located wind-wave farm in order to maximise this time. The investigation is carried out through a case study: Alpha Ventus, an operating offshore wind farm. To maximise the reduction of wave height in the turbine area no fewer than 15 layouts are tested using high-resolution numerical modelling, and a sensitivity analysis is conducted. The results show that, thanks to the wave energy extraction by the WECs, weather windows (access time) can increase very significantly – over 80%. This substantial effect, together with other benefits from the combination of wave and offshore wind power in a co-located farm (common electrical infrastructures, shared O&M equipment and crews, etc.) will enhance the economic viability of these marine renewables, and hence their potential to reduce our carbon footprint on the planet.

Modelling Operation of Service Vessels in Offshore Wind Farms Using Stochastic Activity Networks

The complexity and uncertainty involved in current offshore wind energy projects creates a need for decision support models. By applying stochastic activity networks (SANs), this article introduces a new way to model the operation of service vessels in an offshore wind farm. The SANs enable not only building a physical composition of the offshore wind farm, but also integration of the maintenance demands from various components, maintenance planning and maintenance processes at the same time. With sufficient input data, the complete model can be used to evaluate the availability of the offshore wind farm and work load on the service vessels, subsequently to determine or improve the maintenance plan. Based on their graphical rules, the SAN models are concise and easy to understand. The established SAN models can be applied individually for the evaluation of different maintenance plans, or can also be an add-on in more comprehensive decision support models.

How does a Nascent Industry Project Navigate the Regulatory Structure?: The Cape Wind Project

While much research has studied industry emergence, how a nascent industry confronts the established institutions is poorly understood. Recent institutional analyses have made strides along the cognitive and normative dimensions of institutions, but how entrepreneurial action relates to the regulative dimension is underexplored (Sine & David, 2010). I seek to fill these gaps by studying how a nascent industry project navigates the regulatory structure. Drawing on archival analysis of the permitting process (2001-2011) of the Cape Wind project, the first offshore wind energy project proposed in the United States, I found that structural misalignment between the new realities offered by this nascent industry and the existing regulatory structure constitutes a barrier to industry emergence. Such misalignment, in the forms of a regulatory thicket and a void, underlay how the general public and the permitting agencies differed in their project evaluations. Based on the findings, I propose a framework, consisting of two competing rationalities (science and social justice) and orientations (benefits-seeking and detriments-averse), for mapping the new opportunities and challenges presented by the nascent industry vis-à-vis the regulatory structure. This paper contributes to institutional theory by studying industry emergence in relation to regulative institutions. It also contributes entrepreneurship studies by showing how institutions may condition entrepreneurial action and how gaps in the existing regulations herald unleveraged opportunities for entrepreneurship.

Seabird aggregative patterns: A new tool for offshore wind energy risk assessment

The emerging development of offshore wind energy has raised public concern over its impact on seabird communities. There is a need for an adequate methodology to determine its potential impacts on seabirds. Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) are mostly relying on a succession of plain density maps without integrated interpretation of seabird spatio-temporal variability. Using Taylor’s power law coupled with mixed effect models, the spatio-temporal variability of species’ distributions can be synthesized in a measure of the aggregation levels of individuals over time and space. Applying the method to a seabird aerial survey in the Ebro Delta, NW Mediterranean Sea, we were able to make an explicit distinction between transitional and feeding areas to define and map the potential impacts of an offshore wind farm project. We use the Ebro Delta study case to discuss the advantages of potential impacts maps over density maps, as well as to illustrate how these potential impact maps can be applied to inform on concern levels, optimal EIA design and monitoring in the assessment of local offshore wind energy projects.

Novel offshore application of photovoltaics in comparison to conventional marine renewable energy technologies

An original proposal for the deployment of photovoltaic (PV) systems in offshore environments is presented in this paper. Crystalline PV panels are considered where they are deployed on pontoon type structures and there are six case study examples precedent practise of such deployments in lakes and reservoirs (but not seas). The authors put forward an alternative based on flexible thin film PV that floats directly on the waterline. The paper then concentrates on the techno-economic appraisal of offshore PV systems in comparison to conventional marine renewable energy technologies. The difficulties of comparing offshore technology projects developed in various countries, using different currencies and in different years are overcome so that such comparisons are made on an equitable basis. The discounted cost of electricity generated by each scheme is determined, including capital expenditure (CAPEX) and yearly operation and maintenance (O&M) costs.Actual wind, tidal (current turbines and barrages) and wave projects were considered in the analysis alongside crystalline and thin film PV. Thin film PV was found to be economically competitive with offshore wind energy projects for latitudes ranging from 45°N to 45°S. The specific yield, assessed in terms of GWh/km2 was higher for thin film PV than for wind, wave and tidal barrage systems. In addition the specific installed capacity, expressed in MW/km2 was also higher than the other conventional technologies considered (excluding tidal current turbines).