Off-road Vehicle Use Research Articles

Use of Chemical Soil Additives to Stabilize Off-Road Vehicle Trails

Off-road vehicle (ORV) use is an increasingly popular form of outdoor recreation throughout the United States. This form of motorized recreation, however, can sometimes lead to serious erosion of trail running surfaces, with resulting export of sediment into forested ecosystems causing environmental degradation. This project was conducted to determine the feasibility of using two types of soil amendments, an acrylic copolymer (Envirotac) and a lignin emulsion (Terrabind), as cementing agents to seal and harden ORV trails to reduce erosion and promote durability. The amendments were evaluated in controlled traffic tests on simulated trails in two slope classes averaging 2% and 8%, respectively. Simulated rainfall events of 1-h duration and intensity of 75 mm per hour were used to assess erosion potential. Results showed that both amendments increased total runoff from test plots on flatter slopes, but that sediment concentration was reduced. Net export of sediment was lower for treated plots than those not receiving any soil amendment. In further tests after a period of four months and at higher soil moisture content, the Envirotac treatment retained most of its ability to control the sediment concentration of effluent while the effectiveness of the lignin product was reduced. The Envirotac product was selected for limited testing on actual ORV trails. The amendment was applied on curved, outsloped sections of trails and rut formation was compared to untreated curves located nearby. The soil amendment did not improve durability of the treated sections, but this was likely due to high soil moisture content at the time of installation.

Norton v. Southern Utah Wilderness Alliance: The U.S. Supreme Court Fails to Act on Agency Inaction

Citing inaction by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) in preventing damage to lands designated for possible preservation from explosive increases in off-road vehicle use, the Southern Utah Wilderness Alliance (SUWA) sued BLM in 1998 to force it to prevent impairment of the lands. Although the case involved preservation and land-use management statutes, the conflict ultimately came down to the courts’ power under the Administrative Procedure Act (APA) to force an agency to comply with a statutory mandate to preserve wilderness areas. After a Utah district court dismissed SUWA’s claims and the Tenth Circuit reversed and remanded, the U.S. Supreme Court granted certiorari in the case and issued a unanimous opinion in June 2004. In Norton v. Southern Utah Wilderness Alliance, the Court dismissed SUWA’s claims for a lack of subject matter jurisdiction, reasoning that the APA does not sanction judicial review of agency inaction unless the action sought to be compelled is “discrete agency action.”

Investigating the Impacts of Off‐road Vehicle Activity in Broome, North‐Western Australia: A preliminary appraisal

Pristine natural areas are important leisure sites, with beaches being particularly targeted by recreational vehicles and their passengers. Coastal areas in the Broome region of Western Australia have been subject to an increasing level of leisure off‐road vehicle (ORV) use by locals and tourists. The impacts of ORVs and the associated camping are noticeable on beach and foredune areas and include vegetation damage, litter, soil compaction, erosion and the loss of social and cultural values. This paper provides a preliminary integrated assessment of the biophysical/social issues and policy implications surrounding the present use of ORVs and free camping in the Broome region. Ghost crabs and bi‐valve mollusc populations are shown to be suitable indicators of environmental impacts from ORVs on the study area's most heavily utilised beach driving areas. Questionnaire feedback from 46 respondents relates to user demographics, perceptions of environmental impacts and management actions that address the issues of current ORV use and free camping in the study area and constitutes the basis for this paper's analysis. Visitors are primarily undertaking nature based activities in the study area, do not perceive ORVs to be impacting key environments and show a high level of support for management actions.

Effects of Short- and Long-Term Disturbance Resulting from Military Maneuvers on Vegetation and Soils in a Mixed Prairie Area

Loss of grassland species resulting from activities such as off-road vehicle use increases the need for models that predict effects of anthropogenic disturbance. The relationship of disturbance by military training to plant species richness and composition on two soils (Foard and Lawton) in a mixed prairie area was investigated. Track cover (cover of vehicle disturbance to the soil) and soil organic carbon were selected as measures of short- and long-term disturbance, respectively. Soil and vegetation data, collected in 1-m2 quadrats, were analyzed at three spatial scales (60, 10, and 1 m2). Plant species richness peaked at intermediate levels of soil organic carbon at the 10-m2 and 1-m2 spatial scales on both the Lawton and Foard soils, and at intermediate levels of track cover at all three spatial scales on the Foard soil. Species composition differed across the disturbance gradient on the Foard soil but not on the Lawton soil. Disturbance increased total plant species richness on the Foard soil. The authors conclude that disturbance up to intermediate levels can be used to maintain biodiversity by enriching the plant species pool.

Managing Environmental Impacts of Recreation and Tourism in Rainforests of the Wet Tropics of Queensland World Heritage Area

AbstractThis paper describes environmental impacts of tourism and recreation activities in the world heritage listed rainforests of northeast Australia and presents management strategies for sustainable visitor use of the protected area. Tropical rainforests are characterised by their low resistance and moderate to high resilience to impacts associated with human visitation. Visitor use in the World Heritage Area is mostly associated with walking tracks, camping areas, day use areas and off‐road vehicle use of old forestry roads and tracks. Adverse environmental impacts range from vegetation trampling, soil compaction, water contamination and soil erosion at the local scale through to spread of weeds, feral animals and soil pathogens along extensive networks of old forestry roads and tracks at the regional scale. Concentration of visitor use is the most desirable management strategy for controlling adverse impacts at most World Heritage Area visitor nodes and sites, and includes methods such as site hardening and shielding to contain impacts. For dispersed visitor activities, such as off‐road vehicle driving and long‐distance walking, application of best practice methods by the tourist industry and recreational users such as removal of mud and soils from vehicle tyres and hiking boots before entering pathogen‐free catchments, together with seasonal closure of roads and tracks, are the preferred management strategies. Retention of canopy cover at camping areas and day use areas, as well as along walking tracks and forestry roads is a simple, yet effective, management strategy for reduction of a range of adverse impacts, including dispersal of weeds and feral animals, edge effects, soil erosion and nutrient loss, road kill and linear barrier effects on rainforest fauna.

Assessing the impacts of military vehicle traffic on natural areas. Introduction to the special issue and review of the relevant military vehicle impact literature

The American Society of Agronomy A-2 Division, Military Land Use and Management, and the International Society for Terrain-Vehicle Systems cosponsored a symposium titled “Assessing the Impacts of Military Vehicle Traffic on Natural Areas”. The symposium was held in Denver, CO on 4 November 2003. The objectives of this symposium were to characterize the types of environmental impacts associated with off-road vehicle use at varying spatial scales, to characterize common study approaches used to quantify vehicle impacts, and to identify knowledge gaps that limit the use of study results in decision-making. A series of papers originating from the symposium characterize the range of impact studies frequently conducted on military installations and the application of study results to typical land management, decision-making processes. This paper summarizes the relationships between these studies, integrates the studies into a larger impact analysis framework, and identifies knowledge gaps that limit application of study results in decision-making processes.

A strategic assessment of recreational use areas for off-road vehicles in the coastal zone of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

In January 2002, the Minister of the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism of the South African government promulgated new regulations controlling the use of off-road vehicles in the coastal zone of South Africa. The new regulations provided for a general prohibition on the recreational use of off-road vehicles (ORVs) in the coastal zone as well as providing procedure for approving the use of vehicles in the coastal zone under specific circumstances. The regulations now specify that recreational use of ORVs can only take place in designated recreational use areas (RUAs). This paper described the process of developing a cohesive strategy for the siting of RUAs in the coastal zone of KwaZulu-Natal. This strategy was developed to avoid ad hoc application for areas that might be unsuitable (environmentally or socially) for ORV use. Potential RUAs was identified using seven principles that disqualified areas not suitable, and subjecting the potential RUAs to a number of other considerations. The seven principles are sufficiently generic to be applied to the other three coastal provinces of South Africa and probably further afield. This strategy identified a network of ecologically and socially justifiable RUAs along the coast of KwaZulu-Natal. These areas will not be designated automatically but each area will need to be further scrutinised by an environmental impact assessment.

Transforming Forests with Good Intentions

Transforming Forests with Good Intentions

Bureau of Land Management National Conservation Areas: Legitimate Conservation or Satan's Spawn?

In the last third of the twentieth century, Congress saw fit to designate ten Bureau of Land Management (BLM) national conservation areas (NCAs) in eight western states. Unlike Wilderness or national parks or national wildlife refuges, Congress has never enacted general, uniform guidance to direct the creation and management of NCAs. There is no National Conservation Area System. (1) Although there are similarities in the legislation establishing NCAs, each is the result of local politics and Congressional compromise. Congress cites a multitude of reasons for creating NCAs, but two unstated motives almost always bear on the decision to designate a new area. The first has been to elevate the status of environmentally significant BLM lands (and sometimes their protection) to avoid transferring them to another, more conservation-oriented federal agency. A second unspoken reason Congress creates NCAs is that they are considered a political alternative to Wilderness designation. (2) The enabling legislation designating each NCA establishes the management scheme and lists the permissible uses for that particular area. Table 1 depicts the NCAs Congress has designated to date. By analyzing the columns from left to right one can see the differences between NCAs. Analyzing the rows yields trends in both the levels and types of protection legislated for each area. Congress addresses resource protection, or the lack thereof, in the purposes for which each NCA was designated, the values each area is intended to conserve, the statutory uses that are permitted in each area, or with specific provisions regarding particular uses. Only a few generalities can be made for NCAs. These areas are usually withdrawn from location, leasing and sale under federal mining and geothermal development laws; motorized vehicles are generally limited to designated roads and trails; and as public lands grazing has become more controversial, where grazing privileges have predated NCA designation Congress has acted to specifically preserve them in the enabling legislation. (3) In most cases Congress has authorized acquisition of inheld or adjacent state or private lands through purchase, donation or exchange to consolidate or expand NCAs. Which political party controls what branch of government appears to have little effect on the form or substance of NCA designation. (4) NCAs are potentially helpful in the conservation, protection and restoration of BLM lands. Since there is no underlying statutory basis (including minimum protections) for NCAs, each area Congress creates is essentially concocted to meet the political opportunities or realities of the moment. For example, the Clinton Administration was so bold as to develop a list of minimum protections for NCAs proposed during its tenure; Congressional sponsors of NCA legislation were advised to meet the standards or suffer the President's veto. (5) Similarly if conservationists have a strong political hand, they can help craft good NCAs. If they do not, they will not. The history of NCAs teaches us that they should be considered when it is determined that transfer of the environmentally significant (usually threatened) landscapes to another federal agency is not preferred or politically practical. However, there are standards that conservationists should enforce when Congress seeks to designate a new area. NCAs should not be a substitute for Wilderness designation, rather they should encompass larger landscapes with important natural and other public values and include Wilderness and Wild and Scenic River designations for all qualifying rivers within them. Also, conservationists should reject any NCA that, at a minimum: does not declare environmental conservation as its primary purpose, to which all other exploitative or recreational uses are subordinate; fails to withdraw the entire area from all forms of mineral and geothermal development; does not prohibit off-road vehicle use; or releases wilderness study areas from further consideration as BLM wilderness. …

Long-term shifts in snake populations: a California site revisited

The distribution and abundance of snakes along a transect across an ecotone from an oak woodland-chaparral mosaic to a more arid grassland in north-central California was surveyed. Of 11 taxa documented in the 1970s, 10 were observed in the 1990s; only Tantilla planiceps, a rare form in the 1970s, was absent in the 1990s. Nine of the 11 taxa were similar in abundance across sampling periods. Juvenile Pituophis catenifer and Crotalus viridis increased dramatically in the 1990s; adult Pituophis catenifer declined, whereas adult Crotalus viridis increased. Analysis of these two taxa indicated that abundance along the transect was approximately similar in the 1970s and 1990s; snakes were most abundant in the ecotone. Snake abundance was similar for the 1970s and 1990s in spite of increased road traffic, continued off-road vehicle use and sheep and cattle grazing, and collecting for the pet-trade. Additional study will be necessary to assess the apparent stability of this snake community.

Breeding Biology of the Gopher Frog, Rana capito, in Western Florida

-The breeding biology of Rana capito was studied for one breeding season at a 1.2 ha pond in Okaloosa County, Florida. Frog movement was monitored with a drift fence and pitfall traps and egg deposition site selection was examined using wading surveys. A total of 301 unmarked adult frogs was captured, nearly half in February. Movement of immigrating frogs was positively correlated with rainfall. Frogs that entered and exited the pond only once, exited within an average of 38.5 m from the point of entry. Males spent more time in the basin than females and multiple-recaptured males stayed in the basin longer than single-recaptured males. Overall, the sex ratio did not differ from parity; however, nightly operational sex ratios were overwhelmingly male-biased. The eight-month breeding season (October through May) encompassed three major breeding events (one each in October, February, and April). A total of 146 complete egg masses was found, 67 of which contained an average of 2210 eggs. Frogs oviposited non-randomly, preferring rigid, vertical stems upon which to lay eggs. Each female deposited one egg mass. The gopher frog, Rana capito, is considered rare throughout its range (Martof, et al. 1980; Means, 1986; Dundee and Rossman, 1989; Godley, 1992), with habitat loss regarded as the greatest threat to its existence (Bailey, 1991). The terrestrial stage of the life cycle is threatened by habitat degradation or loss resulting from fire suppression, or habitat loss as a consequence of conversion for agriculture, plantation forestry, and real estate development. The larval stage is threatened by breeding site degradation due to drainage, siltation from road run-off, stocking of predatory fishes, and off-road vehicle use. Although various facets of its ecology have been investigated (Volpe, 1958; Franz, 1986; Bailey, 1990; Semlitsch et al., 1995), the natural history of R. capito remains poorly known. The only quantitative ecological study of R. capito was by Bailey (1990), who examined population size and structure, and environmental factors influencing movement of R. capito at a breeding site in Alabama. A better understanding of the breeding biology of R. capito is needed to address its conservation needs. My study was designed to gather data on (1) R. capito breeding migrations and breeding population size and structure, (2) the number of egg masses deposited per female, and (3) female oviposition site selection. MATERIALS AND METHODS Rana capito breeding biology was examined at Holley Pond, an isolated 1.2 ha depression marsh (Florida Natural Areas Inventory, 1990) on Eglin Air Force Base, Okaloosa County, Florida. Holley Pond is dominated by herbaceous vegetation, principally maidencane (Panicum hemitomon), spikerushes (Eleocharis spp.), hatpins (Eriocaulon compressum), bog-moss (Mayaca fluviatilis), floating hearts (Nymphoides aquatica), centella (Centella erecta), yellow-eyed grass (Xyris sp.), and panic grass (Panicum sp.). Holley Pond typically dries annually, and is comprised of three sub-basins that are connected at high water. Holley Pond occurs within an extensive, fire-suppressed longleaf pine (Pinus palustris)turkey oak (Quercus laevis) sandhill, and is immediately bordered by a narrow band of longleaf pine-live oak (Quercus virginiana) flatwoods. Frog movement into and out of Holley Pond was studied from 20 October 1994 to 19 May 1995 using a drift fence and pitfall traps. The drift fence was constructed from 30.5 m long x 0.9 m high rolls of black polypropylene silt-fencing, the bottom 15 cm of which was buried in the soil to prevent animals from burrowing beneath the fence. The ends of adjoining rolls were overlapped and secured with staples. Wooden stakes were used to support the fence. The fence, which completely encircled the pond, was 483 m long and an average of 15 m (range = 626 m) from the pond edge. Forty-seven pairs of 19 1 plastic buckets were sunk flush against both sides of the fence at approximately 10 m intervals. Each bucket was filled with water to a depth of approximately 2.5 cm and furnished with a sponge to provide cover for trapped animals and moisture if the water evaporated. With few exceptions, traps were checked daily in the morning and occasionally at night during peaks of frog migration. Buckets were covered on days when pitfalls were not checked. Frogs were measured with a plastic rule to the nearest mm (SVL) while flattened on their back, weighed to the nearest 0.5 gram with Pesola 217 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.106 on Mon, 25 Apr 2016 06:05:10 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Registered Michigan Off-Road Vehicle Use and Users: Forest Policy Implications

Abstract From 1975, the number and diversity of off-road vehicles (ORVs) registered in Michigan has grown as have concerns over ORV use and safety. To better understand the situation, the Michigan Department of Natural Resources (MDNR) Forest Management Division commissioned a study of Michigan ORV registrants. The study's objectives were to profile registered ORV users and to identify their use of ORVs in Michigan and their preferences for state policy. A mail questionnaire was sent to a stratified, random sample of 1,200 registrants. Most respondents were male, with higher income and education levels than most Michiganians. Off-road use in Michigan was estimated to be 1.2 million 12 hr recreation days in a 12 month period of 1987-1988. Most use was not on a designated ORV trail, route, or area. Most ORVs were driven by more than the registrant, with many drivers under 16 yr of age. ORV registrants preferred forest roads over other riding situations, and most desired managers to provide more places to ride legally. Following MDNRs public release of this research, the author was invited to testify at legislative hearings reviewing the Michigan ORV statute. Subsequently, the testimony was used as partial basis for revising the ORV law to provide for more designated trails, a "closed unless posted open" rule for state forest ORV use, and restrictions on ORV use by youth. North. J. Appl. For. 13(2):84-88.

A SURVEY OF THE DUNE-BREEDING BIRDS IN THE EASTERN CAPE, SOUTH AFRICA

Summary Watson, J.J. & Kerley, G.I.H. 1995. A survey of the dune-breeding birds in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Ostrich 66:15-20. Increasing human activity in sensitive dune areas may negatively impact dune-breeding birds. The aim of this study was to survey populations of dune-breeding birds along 237 km of sand and dune coastline between Huisklip and The Great Fish River, Eastern Cape. The numbers of Whitefronted Plovers Charadrius marginatus, African Black Oystercatchers Haematopus moquini and Damara Terns Sterna balaenarum were recorded in 33 sections along the coast. A total of 589 African Black Oystercatchers (2.49 birds/km), 537 Whitefronted Plovers (2.27 birds/km) and 28 Damara Terns (0.12 birds/km), were observed. Only one Damara Tern was seen outside the Alexandria Dunefield, which provides 74% of the total potential Damara Tern nesting sites in the Eastern Cape. The area between the Kabeljous and Maitland Rivers and between the Sundays River and Woody Cape (Alexandria Dunefield) are important areas for all dune-breeding birds and both areas are heavily utilized by people, particularly with off-road vehicles. Although these areas are managed by conservation authorities, negative impacts on nestlings have been observed; the effects of this are not as yet evident in the population. The increasing human activity in coastal areas, especially in dunefields, is cause for concern. We recommend these sensitive areas be closed to vehicular traffic and that all off-road vehicle use in sandy areas be controlled more effectively.

Surface disturbances: Their role in accelerating desertification

Maintaining soil stability and normal water and nutrient cycles in desert systems is critical to avoiding desertification. These particular ecosystem processes are threatened by trampling of livestock and people, and by off-road vehicle use. Soil compaction and disruption of cryptobiotic soil surfaces (composed of cyanobacteria, lichens, and mosses) can result in decreased water availability to vascular plants through decreased water infiltration and increased albedo with possible decreased precipitation. Surface disturbance may also cause accelerated soil loss through wind and water erosion and decreased diversity and abundance of soil biota. In addition, nutrient cycles can be altered through lowered nitrogen and carbon inputs and slowed decomposition of soil organic matter, resulting in lower nutrient levels in associated vascular plants. Some cold desert systems may be especially susceptible to these disruptions due to the paucity of surface-rooting vascular plants for soil stabilization, fewer nitrogen-fixing higher plants, and lower soil temperatures, which slow nutrient cycles. Desert soils may recover slowly from surface disturbances, resulting in increased vulnerability to desertification. Recovery from compaction and decreased soil stability is estimated to take several hundred years. Re-establishment rates for soil bacterial and fungal populations are not known. The nitrogen fixation capability of soil requires at least 50 years to recover. Recovery of crusts can be hampered by large amounts of moving sediment, and re-establishment can be extremely difficult in some areas. Given the sensitivity of these resources and slow recovery times, desertification threatens million of hectares of semiarid lands in the United States.

Use of off-road vehicles and mitigation of effects in Alaska permafrost environments: A review

Use of off-road vehicles (ORVs) in permafrost-affected terrain of Alaska has increased sharply over the past two decades. Until the early 1960s, most ORV use was by industry or government, which employed heavy vehicles such as industrial tractors and tracked carriers. Smaller, commercial ORVs became available in the 1960s, with the variety and number in use rapidly increasing. Wheeled and tracked ORVs, many used exclusively for recreation or subsistence harvesting by individuals, are now ubiquitous in Alaska. This increased use has led to concern over the cumulative effects of such vehicles on vegetation, soils, and environmental variables including off-site values. Factors affecting impact and subsequent restoration include specific environmental setting; vegetation; presence and ice content of permafrost; microtopography; vehicle design, weight, and ground pressure; traffic frequency; season of traffic; and individual operator practices. Approaches for mitigating adverse effects of ORVs include regulation and zoning, terrain analysis and sensitivity mapping, route selection, surface protection, and operator training.

Impact of Off-road Vehicles on the Nesting Success of Hooded Plovers Charadrius rubricollis in the Coorong Region of South Australia

Hooded Plovers Charadrius rubricollis breed on ocean beaches in southern Australia. Off-road vehicles have access to many South Australian beaches and may affect Hooded Plovers in two ways: (1) by interfering with breeding behaviour, and/or (2) by running over nests. In the Coorong region, Hooded Plovers usually nested on the ocean beach, above high tide mark and close to the base of the frontal dunes. Most nests were within 6 m of the base of the foredune. Measurements of the density of vehicle tracks across the beach indicated that over 20% of the beach was covered by tracks, with the maximum density of tracks occurring 6 m from the base of the foredune. Tie budgets indicated that Hooded Plovers incubated eggs for 87% of the day. Passing vehicles did not cause a reduction in nest attentiveness. The potential rates at which nests were runover was measured by deploying painted pigeon eggs in artificial nests. On average 6% of these nests were runover per day. This rate is equivalent to 81% of the nests on beaches being runover during the incubation period. Thus, the use of off-road vehicles on ocean beaches potentially reduces the reproductive output of Hooded Plovers.

Pediatric head injury caused by off-road vehicle accidents.

Morbidity and mortality from pediatric head injuries associated with the use of off-road vehicles are increasing. We reviewed all such injuries admitted to acute care hospitals in the two largest urban centers in Manitoba between April 1979 and August 1986. Of 375 injured children, 83 suffered head injury, 70 boys and 13 girls. Ages ranged from 2 to 15 years, with a mean of 10.4 years. Head injury was defined as any injury involving face, scalp or nervous system. Dirtbikes were implicated in 34 accidents, snowmobiles in 28, 3-wheel ATV's in 19, and 4-wheel ATV's in 2. About 85% of accidents occurred in a rural setting. Loss of vehicle control was the most common cause of injury. Alcohol or drug abuse were not factors. Fifty (60.2%) patients suffered loss of consciousness, prolonged in 6 (7.2%). All head-injured children also suffered at least one associated injury, mainly involving the musculoskeletal system. Associated spinal injury occurred in 18%. The average hospital stay was 13 days. Three (3.6%) patients died as a result of head injury.

Spine Trauma Associated With Off-Road Vehicles.

In brief: A seven-year review of 1,447 cases of spine trauma showed a 10% increase in sports-related spine trauma from 1980 to 1986; 53 cases were associated with use of off-road vehicles (ATVs, snowmobiles, and motorized dirt bikes). Of these 53 injuries, the major contributing factors were alcohol or drug use, inadequate lighting, poor judgment, and young age. The authors suggest the development of safe riding areas, legislation governing safe operation of these vehicles, and a major public education campaign specifically geared toward parents, warning them of the dangers of allowing children to operate these machines.

Orthopaedic injuries in children associated with the use of off-road vehicles.

Two hundred and thirty-three children who had musculoskeletal injuries related to the use of off-road vehicles were admitted to acute-care hospitals in the two largest urban centers in Manitoba between April 1979 and August 1986. There were 190 boys and forty-three girls, and the ages ranged from two to seventeen years. Ninety-three accidents involved the use of a minibike or dirtbike; seventy-two, a snowmobile; fifty-nine, a three-wheeled all-terrain vehicle; and nine, a four-wheeled all-terrain vehicle. The injuries in 73 per cent of the children occurred in a rural setting. The use of alcohol or a drug was recorded for only three children. Loss of control of the vehicle led to the majority of injuries. There were 352 fractures of an extremity or the spine and fifty-one major soft-tissue injuries of the musculoskeletal system; 186 (53 per cent) of the fractures were displaced, 107 (46 per cent) of the patients had more than one fracture, and thirty-four (10 per cent) of the fractures were open. There were sixty growth-plate injuries. A total of 186 associated injuries were present in ninety-one patients. In a separate review of the records of the Chief Medical Examiner, it was noted that twenty-one fatal accidents that were related to the use of off-road vehicles occurred in the Province of Manitoba during the same period of time.

Disturbance of beach sediment by off-road vehicles

A three-year investigation was undertaken to examine the effects of off-road vehicles (ORVs) on the beach at Fire Island, New York. Within the National Seashore over 45,000 vehicle trips per year are concentrated in the zone seaward of the dune toe. The experimental approach was adopted in order to assess the environmental effects of ORVs. Specially developed instrumentation was used to measure the direct displacement of sand by vehicles traversing the beach. Direct displacement data were reduced graphically and analyzed by stepwise linear regression. The results of 89 field experiments (788 cases) showed that slope, sand compaction, and number of vehicle passes in the same track were the principal factors controlling the measured net seaward displacement of sand. The data suggest that ORV use levels within the National Seashore could be contributing to the overall erosion rate by delivering large quantities of sand to the swash zone (max. of 119,300 m3/yr). However, with proper management downslope movement of sand could be reduced by an order of magnitude. While vehicular passage over the open beach displaces sand seaward, it is not known if such activity actually increases the amount of erosion, measured as net loss to the beach face.