Occurrence Of Age-related Macular Degeneration Research Articles

Association of age-related macular degeneration with erythrocyte antioxidant enzymes activity and serum total antioxidant status.

The aim was to estimate association of the oxidative stress with the occurrence of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). The activities of erythrocyte antioxidant enzymes: superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and catalase (CAT) and additionally serum total antioxidant status (TAS) were used as indicators of the oxidative stress level. 57 AMD patients (32 early and 25 late AMD) and 50 healthy, age and gender matched controls were included. GPx activity (P < 0.001) and serum TAS (P = 0.015) were significantly lower in AMD patients. The difference was not significant for SOD or CAT activities. Significant interaction between GPx and SOD was detected (P = 0.003). At high levels of SOD activity (over 75th percentile), one standard deviation decrease in GPx increases the odds for AMD for six times (OR = 6.22; P < 0.001). ROC analysis revealed that combined values of GPx activity and TAS are significant determinants of AMD status. Accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values were 75%, 95%, 52%, 69%, and 90%, respectively. The study showed that low GPx activity and TAS are associated with AMD. SOD modulates the association of GPx and AMD. The results suggest that erythrocyte antioxidant enzymes activity and serum TAS could be promising markers for the prediction of AMD.

Senescent retinal pigment epithelial cells are more sensitive to vascular endothelial growth factor: implications for "wet" age-related macular degeneration.

Senescence of the retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cell layer has been implicated in the occurrence of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). The present study examines whether the ability of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) to decrease the barrier function of RPE cells is enhanced in senescent RPE cells, which could contribute to the pathology of "wet" AMD. Low or high population doubling level (PDL) range ARPE-19 human RPE cells were cultured in 6-well plates on membrane-containing inserts. After 2 weeks, the cells were treated with either VEGF or its vehicle and their transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) was measured. One week later, the cells were stained for senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SABG) activity. VEGF was significantly more effective in reducing the TEER of the high PDL ARPE-19 cell layers than the low PDL layers (25% decrease vs. 6% decrease; t-test, P=0.0013). The low PDL cell layers had a modest uniform level of SABG staining. In contrast, the high PDL layers displayed darker and more mottled SABG staining indicative of the presence of senescent cells. The present results show that the ability of VEGF to reduce the barrier function of RPE cell layers is greater in high PDL layers, which display signs of senescence, than in low PDL layers. Senescence-induced changes in the responsiveness of RPE cell layers to VEGF could contribute to the pathology of AMD. Agents that strengthen the barrier properties of RPE cells or reduce their responsiveness to VEGF could be effective in treating "wet" AMD.

Association Between Aspirin Use and Age-Related Macular Degeneration: A Meta-Analysis

We conducted a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and observational studies to evaluate the association between aspirin use and age-related macular degeneration (AMD). The pertinent studies were identified via literature search through four databases (MEDLINE, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, Embase) and reference lists of retrieved studies. Randomized controlled trials and cohort and case-control studies meeting the predefined criteria were included. We extracted relative risk (RR) or odds ratio (OR) or hazard ratio (HR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) from each study. Overall and study-specific risk estimates were pooled using fixed-effects and random-effects models, respectively. Subgroup analyses based on several stratified factors were also performed. In total, two RCTs, three cohort studies, and four case-control studies involving 177,683 subjects were included. The pooled effect of all nine studies showed no significant association between aspirin use and occurrence of AMD (RR, 1.00; 95% CI 0.96-1.04), and no significant association was observed in any specific study design (RR, 0.93; 95% CI 0.71-1.22 for RCT; RR, 1.02; 95% CI 0.87-1.20 for cohort study; RR, 1.00; 95% CI 0.96-1.04 for case-control study). However, subgroup analysis showed aspirin use to be significantly associated with an increased risk of neovascular AMD (RR, 1.59; 95% CI 1.09-2.31). The pooled effects from current literature suggest that aspirin use is not associated with AMD, but it increased the risk of the neovascular form of AMD.

Variability of the Transferrin Receptor 2 Gene in AMD

Oxidative stress is a major factor in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Iron may catalyze the Fenton reaction resulting in overproduction of reactive oxygen species. Transferrin receptor 2 plays a critical role in iron homeostasis and variability in its gene may influence oxidative stress and AMD occurrence. To verify this hypothesis we assessed the association between polymorphisms of the TFR2 gene and AMD. A total of 493 AMD patients and 171 matched controls were genotyped for the two polymorphisms of the TFR2 gene: c.1892C>T (rs2075674) and c.−258+123T>C (rs4434553). We also assessed the modulation of some AMD risk factors by these polymorphisms. The CC and TT genotypes of the c.1892C>T were associated with AMD occurrence but the latter only in obese patients. The other polymorphism was not associated with AMD occurrence, but the CC genotype was correlated with an increasing AMD frequency in subjects with BMI < 26. The TT genotype and the T allele of this polymorphism decreased AMD occurrence in subjects above 72 years, whereas the TC genotype and the C allele increased occurrence of AMD in this group. The c.1892C>T and c.−258+123T>C polymorphisms of the TRF2 gene may be associated with AMD occurrence, either directly or by modulation of risk factors.

Clinical characteristics and analysis of HFE gene variants (C282Y and H63D) in Jordanian Arab patients with age-related macular degeneration

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a complex genetic disorder with multiple etiologies. Multiple genes as well as environmental effects are thought to play a role in causing AMD. Recent evidence pointed that elevated iron overload, resulting from hereditary defects of iron homeostasis, is associated with retinal degeneration and consequently plays a role in the pathogenesis of AMD. Hemochromatosis is a genetic disorder in which excess iron is absorbed from the diet and deposited in different tissues, primarily caused by mutations in HFE gene. Two major mutations in HFE are responsible for most hemochromatosis cases, namely, C282Y and H63D.In this work we gathered information relating to 37 AMD patients from Jordan, and investigated the potential association between hemochromatosis, or more specifically, carrier state for a mutation in HFE gene (which may moderately increase dietary iron absorption) and AMD, given the effect of elevated iron levels on AMD occurrence. Questionnaires and blood samples were collected from patients visiting the eye care clinic in the King Abdullah hospital in Jordan. DNA was extracted from patient samples and mutations in HFE were genotyped (using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), and DNA sequencing) and compared to 106 control samples.We could not detect C282Y (rs1800562) variant in our patient population or in the controls. For carrier status with H63D (rs1799945) we had 30.3% compared to a frequency of 22.7% in the controls (p=0.37). H63D allele frequency was 15.2% in our patients compared to 11.8% in the controls (p=0.30).H63D variant seems to be more frequent in AMD patients though not reaching a significance of p=0.05. To date, this is the first attempt to link HFE (particularly, H63D) mutation to AMD.

Genetic Variability in DNA Repair Proteins in Age-Related Macular Degeneration

The pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is complex and involves interactions between environmental and genetic factors, with oxidative stress playing an important role inducing damage in biomolecules, including DNA. Therefore, genetic variability in the components of DNA repair systems may influence the ability of the cell to cope with oxidative stress and in this way contribute to the pathogenesis of AMD. However, few reports have been published on this subject so far. We demonstrated that the c.977C>G polymorphism (rs1052133) in the hOGG1 gene and the c.972G>C polymorphism (rs3219489) in the MUTYH gene, the products of which play important roles in the repair of oxidatively damaged DNA, might be associated with the risk of AMD. Oxidative stress may promote misincorporation of uracil into DNA, where it is targeted by several DNA glycosylases. We observed that the g.4235T>C (rs2337395) and c.–32A>G (rs3087404) polymorphisms in two genes encoding such glycosylases, UNG and SMUG1, respectively, could be associated with the occurrence of AMD. Polymorphisms in some other DNA repair genes, including XPD (ERCC2), XRCC1 and ERCC6 (CSB) have also been reported to be associated with AMD. These data confirm the importance of the cellular reaction to DNA damage, and this may be influenced by variability in DNA repair genes, in AMD pathogenesis.

Association between polymorphisms of the DNA base excision repair genes MUTYH and hOGG1 and age-related macular degeneration

Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD) is an eye disease that results in progressive and irreversible loss of central vision and is considered as the primary cause of visual impairment, including blindness, in the elderly in industrialized countries. Oxidative stress has been implicated in the pathogenesis of AMD. The hOGG1 and the MUTYH genes play an important role in the repair of oxidatively damaged DNA in the base excision repair pathway. The DNA glycosylases encoded by the hOGG1 and MUTYH genes initiate this pathway by recognizing and removing 8-oxoguanine and adenine paired with 8-oxoguanine, respectively. Our study was designed to examine the association between the c.977C>G polymorphism (rs1052133) of the hOGG1 gene and the c.972G>C polymorphism (rs3219489) of the MUTYH gene and AMD as well as the modulation of this association by some clinical and lifestyle factors. Genotypes were determined in DNA from blood of 271 AMD patients, including 101 with wet and 170 with dry form of the disease and 105 sex- and age-matched individuals without AMD. We observed an association between AMD, dry and wet forms of AMD and the C/G genotype and the G allele of the c.977C>G-hOGG1 polymorphism (p 0.006; 0.009; 0.021 and 0.004; 0.005; 0.016 respectively). On the other hand, the C/C genotype and the C allele reduced the risk of AMD as well as of its dry form or wet form (p 0.002; 0.003; 0.010 and 0.004; 0.005; 0.016, respectively). Therefore, the associations we detected were driven by the dry AMD. We observed some statistically significant association between the occurrence of AMD and its dry and wet forms and genotypes of the other polymorphism, the c.972G>C-MUTYH polymorphism, but due to borderline character of all this association we do not consider them as medically relevant. Our findings suggest that the c.977C>G-hOGG1 polymorphism may be associated with dry AMD. Further studies are needed to determine possible association between AMD and the c.972G>C-MUTYH polymorphism.

An association between environmental factors and the IVS4+44C&gt;A polymorphism of the DMT1 gene in age-related macular degeneration

BackgroundAge-related macular degeneration (AMD) is an ocular disease affecting macula — the central part of the retina, resulting in the degeneration of photoreceptors and retinal epithelium and causing severe central vision impairment. The pathophysiology of the disease is not completely known, but a significant role is attributed to genetic factors. The contribution of oxidative stress in AMD as a trigger of the degenerative process is well-established. Iron ions may act as a source of reactive oxygen species; therefore, maintaining iron homeostasis is important for redox balance in the organism. Diversity in iron homeostasis genes may counterpart in unbalanced redox state, and thus be involved in AMD pathophysiology.MethodsIn this work, we searched for an association between some single nucleotide polymorphisms in the divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1) gene intronic IVS4+44C>A (rs224589) and 3’-UTR c.2044T>C (rs2285230) and environmental factors and AMD. Genotyping was performed using the PCR-RFLP method. DNA was obtained from 436 AMD patients and 168 controls.ResultsWe did not find any association between the genotypes of the two polymorphisms and AMD occurrence. However, we observed that AMD patients living in a rural environment and having the CC genotype of the IVS4+44C>A polymorphism had an increased risk of AMD, while individuals with the CA genotype or the A allele had a decreased risk of the disease. Moreover, in male AMD patients the C allele increased the risk of the disease, while the AA genotype decreased it.ConclusionsThese results suggest that the VS4+44C>A polymorphism of the DMT1 gene may interact with place of living and gender to modulate the risk of AMD.

Mechanism of inflammation in age-related macular degeneration.

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a multifactorial disease that represents the most common cause of irreversible visual impairment among people over the age of 50 in Europe, the United States, and Australia, accounting for up to 50% of all cases of central blindness. Risk factors of AMD are heterogeneous, mainly including increasing age and different genetic predispositions, together with several environmental/epigenetic factors, that is, cigarette smoking, dietary habits, and phototoxic exposure. In the aging retina, free radicals and oxidized lipoproteins are considered to be major causes of tissue stress resulting in local triggers for parainflammation, a chronic status which contributes to initiation and/or progression of many human neurodegenerative diseases such as AMD. Experimental and clinical evidences strongly indicate the pathogenetic role of immunologic processes in AMD occurrence, consisting of production of inflammatory related molecules, recruitment of macrophages, complement activation, microglial activation and accumulation within those structures that compose an essential area of the retina known as macula lutea. This paper reviews some attractive aspects of the literature about the mechanisms of inflammation in AMD, especially focusing on those findings or arguments more directly translatable to improve the clinical management of patients with AMD and to prevent the severe vision loss caused by this disease.

Association of Alzheimer's disease and age‐related macular degeneration

AbstractPurpose The pathomechanisms of age‐related macular degeneration (AMD) and Alzheimer dementia (AD) show several similarities. Allelic variations of apolipoprotein E (apoE) are associated with both diseases: apoE4 with increased risk of AD, whereas apoE2 with reduced susceptibility of AD, but increased risk of AMD. The AMD associated complement factor H (CFH) gene has also been shown to influence the risk of AD. We investigated, therefore, the occurrence of AMD in AD patients and compared their lipid profile, apoE and CFH polymorphisms.Methods 96 AMD, 84 AD and 30 control patients were examined (visual acuity, biomicroscopy, fundoscopy). Measurements of triglyceride, total‐ and HDL cholesterol levels, as well as the analysis of apoE and CFH alleles were performed.Results The prevalence of the apoE4 isoform in the AMD, AD and control patients was 6%, 34% and 27%, while that of apoE2 was 14%, 11% and 6%, respectively. The occurrence rate of CFH Y402H CC homozygote mutation was 35%, 19% and 16%, respectively. Triglyceride, total‐ and HDL cholesterol levels were in the reference range. Advanced AMD was found in 13% of the 68 cooperating AD patients, the early and intermediate form was seen in 17%.Conclusion A higher frequency of apoE2 in AMD, and a higher frequency of apoE4 in Alzheimer's patients have been found. The CFH mutation is associated with AMD, but does not differ significantly between Alzheimer's patients and controls. The frequency of early and intermediate AMD in AD patients was lower than expected from the population‐based studies.

Bilateral Symmetric Autosomal Dominant Sector Chorioretinopathy with late Maculopathy: A Review Based on a Case with 48 Years Follow-up

To describe the long-term course of bilateral symmetric autosomal dominant sector chorioretinopathy in a 79-year-old man who was diagnosed at age 31. Ophthalmic examinations including fundus photography, fluorescein and indocyanine angiography, adaptometry, and ocular electrophysiology were performed at intervals from 1962 to 2010. The patient experienced no visual symptoms during his entire working life, but acquired an exudative maculopathy in his left eye at age 67. Two years later, a central subretinal neovascular membrane affected the right eye. The latter responded only temporarily to photodynamic therapy (Visudyne), and from age 71 he had best-corrected visual acuities <0.1 in both eyes, with eccentric fixation. We are not aware of any report on late macular involvement in this disorder. Whether the maculopathy should be considered a late manifestation of the sector chorioretinopathy or a coincidental occurrence of age-related macular degeneration remains unsettled.

An association between polymorphism of the heme oxygenase-1 and -2 genes and age-related macular degeneration

Iron may be implicated in the generation of oxidative stress by the catalyzing the Haber–Weiss or Fenton reaction. On the other hand, oxidative stress has been implicated in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), encoded by the HMOX1 gene and heme oxygenase-2 (HO-2), encoded by the HMOX2 gene are important markers of iron-related oxidative stress and its consequences. Therefore, variability of the HMOX1 and HMOX2 genes might be implicated in the pathogenesis of AMD through the modulation of the cellular reaction to oxidative stress. In the present work, we investigated the association between AMD and a G → C transversion at the 19 position in the HMOX1 gene (the 19G>C-HMOX1 polymorphism, rs2071747) and a A → G transition at the −42 + 1444 position in the HMOX2 gene (the −42 + 1444A>G-HMOX2 polymorphism, rs2270363) and its modulation by some environmental factors. 279 patients with AMD and 105 controls were recruited in this study and the polymorphisms were typed by restriction fragment length polymorphism and allele-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR). We observed an association between the occurrence of dry AMD and the G/A genotype of the −42 + 1444A>G-HMOX2 polymorphism (odds ratio (OR) 2.72), whereas the G/G genotype reduced the risk of dry AMD (OR 0.41). The G/C genotype and the C allele of the 19 G>C-HMOX1 polymorphism and the G/G genotype and the G allele of the −42 + 1444A>G-HMOX2 polymorphism were associated with progression of AMD from dry to wet form (OR 4.83, 5.20, 2.55, 1.69, respectively). On the other hand, the G/G genotype and the G allele of the 19 G>C-HMOX1 polymorphism and the A/G genotype and the A allele of the −42 + 1444A>G-HMOX2 polymorphism protected against AMD progression (OR 0.19, 0.19, 0.34, 0.59, respectively). Therefore, the 19G>C-HMOX1 and the −42 + 1444A>G-HMOX2 polymorphisms may be associated with the occurrence and progression of AMD.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s11033-011-0955-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Effects of diabetes mellitus on the occurrence of age-related macular degeneration

Diabetes mellitus causing long term disturbed glucose metabolism could result in tissue injury and multiple complications. According to recent studies, diabetes mellitus might be regarded as one of the risk factors of age related macular degeneration (AMD). Diabetes mellitus affects the incidence and progression of AMD through altering hemodynamics, increasing oxidative stress, accumulating advanced glycation end products, etc. By studying epidemiological investigation and basic research on this subject comprehensively, it is required to review the correlation between diabetes mellitus and AMD.

Lack of association between the c.544G&gt;A polymorphism of the heme oxygenase-2 gene and age-related macular degeneration

SummaryBackgroundAge-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a primary cause of blindness among the elderly in developed countries. The nature of AMD is complex and includes both environmental and hereditary factors. Oxidative stress is thought to be essential in AMD pathogenesis. Iron is suggested to be implicated in the pathogenesis of AMD through the catalysis of the production of reactive oxygen species, which can damage the retina. Heme oxygenase-2 is capable of degradation of heme producing free iron ions, thus, diversity in heme oxygenase-2 gene may contribute to AMD. In the present work we analyzed the association between the c.544G>A polymorphism of the heme oxygenase-2 gene (HMOX2) (rs1051308) and AMD.Material/MethodsThis study enrolled 276 AMD patients and 105 sex- and age-matched controls. Genotyping of the polymorphism was performed with restriction fragment length polymorphism polymerase chain reaction (RFLP-PCR) on DNA isolated from peripheral blood.ResultsWe did not find any association between the genotypes of the c.544G>A polymorphism and the occurrence of AMD. This lack of association was independent of potential AMD risk factors: tobacco smoking, sex and age. Moreover, we did not find any association between AMD and smoking in our study population.ConclusionsThe results suggest that the c.544G>A polymorphism of the heme oxygenase-2 gene is not associated with AMD in this Polish subpopulation.

Potential of melatonin to treat or prevent age-related macular degeneration through stimulation of telomerase activity

Melatonin may play a causal role in the occurrence of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Replicative capacity and response to injury in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is compromised during aging. Prevention of telomere shortening by antioxidants may be a useful approach for reducing the cumulative effects of oxidative stress in RPE cells. Melatonin, a well known antioxidant, which acts advantageously as an amphiphilic agent, may benefit AMD patients more than commonly used lipophilic or hydrophilic antioxidants. It also may act through mechanisms other than antioxidant mechanisms because melatonin has receptors localized in the RPE, which act locally as a neurohormone and/or neuromodulator. Results of a clinical trial showed that 3mg melatonin given orally each night at bedtime for 3 months to AMD patients reduced pathologic macular changes. I hypothesize that melatonin exerts additional benefit through down-regulating hTERT (catalytic subunit if telomerase) expression and stimulated telomerase activity in RPE, which subsequently helps to prevent or treat AMD. I suggest that melatonin therapy as pharmacologic agents and/or melatonin-rich foods, especially in AMD patients with measured low serum melatonin levels or high risk patients would be possibly an alternative approach to prevent and/or treat AMD. I suggest that melatonin has potential to prevent telomere shortening in RPE, while not precluding other mechanisms, namely antioxidative properties and/or restoration of inner blood-retina barrier (iBRB) integrity, reduced vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and nitric oxide (NO) levels as well as leakage of horseradish peroxidase (HRP), inhibiting hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha (HIF-1 alpha) stabilization under hypoxia.

Fundus autofluorescence patterns of drusen in age-related macular degeneration

To investigate the characteristics of fundus autofluorescence (FAF) patterns of drusen in patients with nonexudative age-related macular degeneration (AMD). It was a retrospective case series study. Spatial distribution and intensity of FAF of 63 cases (78 eyes) with nonexudative AMD were recorded using a confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (cSLO, Heidelberg Retina Angiograph 2, HRA2, Heidelberg, Germany), the excitation light used was at 488 nm (argon laser), emission light at 514 nm (barrier filter), and fundus field-of-view at 30-degrees. Color fundus photographs were obtained with Kowa Nonmyd 7. Three-dimensional fundus images were captured by spectral domain optical coherence tomography (Topcon, 3D OCT-1000, Japan). The FAF changes did not correlate topographically with visible fundus changes and 3D-OCT images in 78 eyes with drusen in nonexudative AMD. The majority of these eyes (68 out of 78) showed abnormal FAF signal of drusen at the posterior pole, which could be classified into seven different patterns according to their different features: minimal, focal confluent, linear, patchy, lace-like, speckled and scattered changes. In the remaining 10 eyes, the small lesions presented in color fundus photos were not detected in FAF examination. Therefore, a homogeneous background signal similar to the normal fundus was obtained by FAF examination. In addition, 15 patients exhibited abnormal autofluorescence in both eyes, 13 of them showed asymmetrical FAF changes, indicating that asymmetrical lesions might be presented. Various patterns of abnormal FAF can be clearly imaged with HRA2-cSLO in nonexudative AMD, reflecting different stages of this disease. Periodic observation of drusen with FAF examination is of great clinical value in the estimation of occurrence and development of AMD.

Serum vitamin B12 and folic acid in exudative age-related macular degeneration patients

Objective To investigate the serum levels of vitamin B12 and folic acid (FA) of exudative age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Methods A total of 84 patients with exudative AMD(AMD group)and 78 patients with non-exudative AMD (control group) diagnosed at Xijing Hospital between June 2008 and September 2009 were assessed in this study. Serum vitamin B12 and FA levels were measured by chemiluminescence immunoassay. The statistical information of epidemiology and risk factors exposure histories were collected and compared. Results AMD group had significantly lower serum vitamin B12 levels[(247.51±93. 92) ng/ml]compared with the control group [(312. 52±143.08) ng/ml], the difference was statistical significance (t=5. 013, P<0.001). Serum FA levels in AMD group [(5. 64±3.72) ng/ml]were slightly lower than the control group [( 10.14±4. 48) ng/ml], the difference was not statistical significance (t=0. 780, P= 0. 437). Conclusion People with lower serum vitamin B12 have higher risk of exudative AMD. Low levels of serum vitamin B12 may relate with the occurrence of exudative AMD. Key words: Macular degeneration/etiology; Vitamin B12/lack; Folic acid/lack

Association between vascular endothelial growth factor gene polymorphisms and age-related macular degeneration in a Polish population

The pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is thought to be determined by an array of environmental and genetic factors. The association of increased expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) with AMD, especially the wet form of AMD, was reported in several studies. The VEGF gene is highly polymorphic and some of its polymorphisms may affect its expression. In our work, we searched for an association between the −460C> (rs833061) and −634G>C (rs2010963) polymorphisms of the VEGF gene and the occurrence of AMD and its dry and wet forms. We have chosen these polymorphisms because they were shown to be significant in other studies and we previously showed their association with diabetic retinopathy. A total of 401 individuals were enrolled in this study: 136 controls, and 88 patients with dry and 177 with wet AMD. The polymorphisms were determined with DNA from peripheral blood lymphocytes by allele-specific and restriction fragment length polymorphism polymerase chain reaction. The significance of the polymorphisms was assessed by multiple logistic regression, producing odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). We observed a weak association (OR 2.90) between AMD occurrence and the C/T genotype of the −460C>T polymorphism. An association (OR 3.77) between the C/T genotype of the −460C>T polymorphism and the occurrence of dry AMD was observed. The T/T genotype considerably lowered the risk of dry AMD (OR 0.19). Dry AMD was associated with the C/C genotype of the −634G>C polymorphism (OR 3.68). Another weak association (OR 2.63) was found between the C/T genotype of the −460C>T polymorphism and the occurrence of wet AMD. The occurrence of AMD was correlated with the presence of the combined C/T–G/G genotype of both polymorphisms (OR 2.41), whereas the T/T–G/G and T/T–G/C genotypes exerted a protective effect against the disease (OR 0.22 and 0.48, respectively). The presence of the C/T–G/G and C/T–C/C combined genotypes increased the risk of dry AMD (OR 2.08 and 3.77, respectively), whereas the presence of the T/T–G/G and T/T–G/C genotypes decreased the risk (OR 0.15 and 0.28, respectively). In the wet form of AMD, the combined genotype C/T–G/G slightly favored the disease (OR 2.61) and the T/T–G/G genotype had a protective effect (OR 0.25). Analysis of haplotypes of both polymorphisms yielded similar results for AMD in general as well as for the dry and wet forms of the disease: the CG haplotype favored both forms of AMD, whereas the TG haplotype protected against both forms of AMD. The results obtained indicate that the −460C>T and −634G>C polymorphisms of the VEGF gene may be associated with the dry and wet forms of AMD in a Polish population.

Diet and age-related macular degeneration: expanding our view

Diet and age-related macular degeneration: expanding our view

Aging and age-related macular degeneration

Aging is a common feature of biological changes in the eye, especially in the retina. It is recognized that the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) involves changes of RPE-Bruch membrane and choroid capillaries complex, which includes function and structure abnormal in the complex accompanied with aging processes. Aging may be an important event to contribute to the pathogenesis of AMD, but aging dose not directly led to the occurrence of AMD, multifactor is involved in the initiation of the pathogenesis of AMD. Therefore, this review is summarizing the latest concepts of the rale of aging in the occurrence of AMD.