Nursing Period Research Articles

Breeding behavior and pup development of the Caspian seal,Pusa caspica

The Caspian seal, Pusa caspica, is an ice-breeding phocid endemic to the Caspian Sea. The breeding behavior of this species is poorly documented. Here, we report behavioral observations of 518 mother-pup pairs and 210 lone pups, made from the bridge of icebreakers traversing seal breeding grounds while servicing oil installations in the northeastern Caspian Sea, during 34 trips from late January to early March, 2006-2012. The breeding habitat of Caspian seals is land-fast or drift ice, usually at least 20 cm thick, overlying water 3–5 m deep. Pregnant females formed pairs or small groups. They were not observed to use lairs, but preferentially pupped beside ice ridges or ice-slab piles that afforded shelter to pups. In years when there were few natural leads into the ice-field, females often gave birth on the edge of artificial leads formed by shipping channels. Pups were categorized into stages from newborn (1), white-coat (2), molting (3), and molted (4), with Stage 3 and 4 pups appearing from mid to late February. The nursing period lasted at least 3 weeks and neighboring mother-pup pairs appeared to be mutually tolerant. Mothers left their pups alone or at nursery sites, presumably to forage. Most white-coat pups moved over the ice while avoiding water in response to disturbance from vessels. Mother-pup pairs maintained contact while moving across the ice by a combination of the pup’s following response and diligent chaperoning by the mother. During disturbances some lone pups sought refuge in shelters under ice slabs, whereas others followed a neighboring mother-pup pair away from the vessel. Male-female pairing occurred in late season with no male-male competition observed on the ice. While breeding and pup rearing behavior of Caspian seals has some features in common with that of other Holarctic seals, it is largely distinct and adapted to the unique conditions of the Caspian environment, in particular the paucity of snow cover on the ice.

Maternal transfer of perfluoroalkyl substances in hooded seals.

The role of milk in the transfer of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) to offspring is not well known in wildlife. Eight PFASs were quantified in plasma and milk in mother-pup pairs of hooded seals (Cystophora cristata) during the nursing period, and the role of milk in the transfer process was analyzed. Hooded seal was chosen because of its short lactation period (3-4 d), during which the pup feeds only on milk. Placental or lactation transfer would thus be the only source of PFAS in the pup. Of the 8 PFASs analyzed (Σ8 PFAS), 7 were found in all samples; therefore, milk is a source to PFASs in pups. Perfluorooctane sulfonate was the dominant PFAS in all samples. Mean Σ8 PFAS concentrations were 6.0 ng/g protein (36 ng/g wet wt) in maternal plasma, 0.77 ng/g protein (3.2 ng/g wet wt) in milk, and 12 ng/g protein (66 ng/g wet wt) in pup plasma. Measured concentrations in plasma were within ranges previously reported from other seal species, below known toxicity thresholds for experimental rodents. Individual PFASs differed in transfer efficiency from mother to pup, depending on carbon chain lengths, with the lowest relative transfer for the intermediate-chained PFASs (C9 -C10 ). The results show maternal transfer of PFASs via both milk and the placenta, of which placental transfer is the dominant pathway. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:763-770. © 2016 SETAC.

Fatty Acid de Novo Synthesis in Adult Intrauterine Growth‐Restricted Offspring, and Adult Male Response to a High Fat Diet

Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) with rapid catch-up growth leads to adult obesity and insulin resistance. We have previously shown that IUGR male rats demonstrated increased de novo fatty acid synthesis in the subcutaneous (SC) fat, but not the visceral fat, during the nursing period prior to the onset of obesity. Young IUGR females do not exhibit the same increase. We further hypothesized that in male IUGR offspring, de novo synthesis is a programmed intrinsic effect that persists to adulthood and does not suppress in response to a high fat diet. We measured fatty acid de novo synthesis in IUGR adult males (6months) using deuterium-enriched drinking water as a stable isotope tracer, then further studied the response after consumption of an isocaloric high fat diet. Baseline de novo synthesis in adult females was also studied at age 9months. Males demonstrated increased baseline de novo synthesis in both SC fat and visceral fat. Correspondingly, SC and visceral fat protein expression of lipogenic enzymes acetyl-coA carboxylase-α (ACCα) and fatty acid synthase were upregulated. After the isocaloric high fat diet, de novo synthesis was suppressed such that no differences remained between the two groups, although, IUGR SC fat demonstrated persistently increased lipogenic protein expression. In contrast, de novo synthesis among adult females is not impacted in IUGR. In conclusion, enhancement of male IUGR SC fat de novo synthesis appears to be an early consequence of metabolic programming, whereas enhancement in visceral fat appears to be a later consequence.

Maternal Milk T Cells Drive Development of Transgenerational Th1 Immunity in Offspring Thymus.

Using multiple murine foster-nursing protocols, thereby eliminating placental transfer and allowing a distinction between dam- and pup-derived cells, we show that foster nursing by an immunized dam results in development of CD8(+) T cells in nonimmunized foster pups that are specific for Ags against which the foster dam was immunized (Mycobacterium tuberculosis or Candida albicans). We have dubbed this process "maternal educational immunity" to distinguish it from passive cellular immunity. Of the variety of maternal immune cells present in milk, only T cells were detected in pup tissues. Maternal T cells, a substantial percentage of which were CD4(+)MHC class II(+), accumulated in the pup thymus and spleen during the nursing period. Further analysis of maternal cells in the pup thymus showed that a proportion was positive for maternal immunogen-specific MHC class II tetramers. To determine the outcome of Ag presentation in the thymus, the maternal or foster pup origin of immunogen-responding CD8(+) cells in foster pup spleens was assessed. Whereas ∼10% were maternally derived in the first few weeks after weaning, all immunogen-responding CD8(+) T cells were pup derived by 12 wk of age. Pup-derived immunogen-responsive CD8(+) cells persisted until at least 1 y of age. Passive cellular immunity is well accepted and has been demonstrated in the human population. In this study, we show an arguably more important role for transferred immune cells: the direction of offspring T cell development. Harnessing maternal educational immunity through prepregnancy immunization programs has potential for improvement of infant immunity.

ダイオキシン次世代毒性の新たな展開：育児母の prolactin 減少に基づく子育て減退とその世代継承

ダイオキシン次世代毒性の新たな展開：育児母の prolactin 減少に基づく子育て減退とその世代継承

Severe Bone Loss as Part of the Life History Strategy of Bowhead Whales.

The evolution of baleen constituted a major evolutionary change that made it possible for baleen whales to reach enormous body sizes while filter feeding on tiny organisms and migrating over tremendous distances. Bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) live in the Arctic where the annual cycle of increasing and decreasing ice cover affects their habitat, prey, and migration. During the nursing period, bowheads grow rapidly; but between weaning and approximately year 5, bowhead whales display sustained baleen and head growth while limiting growth in the rest of their bodies. During this period, they withdraw resources from the skeleton, in particular the ribs, which may lose 40% of bone mass. Such dramatic changes in bones of immature mammals are rare, although fossil cetaceans between 40 and 50 million years ago show an array of rib specializations that include bone loss and are usually interpreted as related to buoyancy control.

Analysis of citations of literatures of nursing staff from quotations of five nursing periodicals from year 2010 to 2012

Objective To investigate the habits that literatures using by nursing staffs during 2010 to 2012 in China. Methods The publication from Chinese of , Research , Chinese of Practical , Journal of Nurses Training and Journal of Nursing Science from year of 2010 to 2012 were statistically analyzed using literature metrology method. The statistics results were compared with data from 2007 to 2009. Results In past 3 years, the quantity, quantity of papers with citations, average number of citations, citations of theses with citations published in-mentioned above five periodicals increased year by year.In 2010 to 2012, the average number of citations and citations rate of papers also improved compared with 2007 to 2009. The type citation is mainly from Journals, and the language was mainly in Chinese. Conclusions In the past 3 years, the nursing staff's literature utilization was improved. However, in the situation of using references with foreign language, nursing staff was poor comparing with medical personnel. On the scientific research ability of nursing personnel training should be strengthened, and the application of new technology and new theory in domestic and international should be strengthened as well. . Key words: Nursing staff; Nursing periodicals; Quotation; Reference

Dental Fluorosis and Catalase Immunoreactivity of the Brain Tissues in Rats Exposed to High Fluoride Pre- and Postnatally

This study evaluated dental fluorosis of the incisors and immunoreactivity in the brain tissues of rats given chronic fluoride doses pre- and postnatally. Female rats were given drinking water with 0, 30 or 100ppm fluoride ad libitum throughout gestation and the nursing period. In addition, 63 male offspring were treated with the same water regimens as the mothers after weaning and were followed for 1, 3 or 5months. The upper and lower incisors were collected, and all teeth were examined under a stereomicroscope and scored by two blinded examiners using a modified rodent enamel fluorosis index. Cortical, hippocampal and cerebellar brain samples were evaluated morphologically and immunohistochemically. All fluoride-treated pups were born with low body weight (p=0.001). All animals from the fluoride groups had enamel fluorosis with defects of various degrees. The increase in the dental fluorosis scores in the fluoride treatment groups was significant (p<0.01). The catalase immunoreactivity in the 30- and 100-ppm fluoride groups was significantly higher than that in the controls after 1, 3 and 5months (p<0.001). In conclusion, this study showed that rats with dental fluorosis had catalase immunoreactivity in the brain tissues, which may reflect the neurobehavioral toxicity of fluoride.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LIPTEN HORMONE CONCENTRATION AND RABBITS REPRODUCTIVITY

The present work was planned to study the relationship between Lipten hormone concentration and rabbit reproductivity. Two rabbit breeds (Baladi Black as a native breed and New-Zealand White as an exotic breed) were used in the present study. Lipten hormone concentrations were determined in blood, milk and semen of ordinary and low fertile rabbits. The study included two experiments. Primary experiment was conducted to determine the high and low fertile doe and buck rabbits. The second experiment was planned to measure Lipten hormone concentration in blood serum of high and low fertile doe and buck rabbits. Lipten hormone levels were also measured in milk and semen of lactating doe and buck rabbits, respectively. Sixty sexually mature rabbits (30 in each of low-fertile and high-fertile) of twelve months of age (10 does & 5 bucks within each breed of Baladi Black and New-Zealand White were used in this study. Results Obtained showed that,blood swrum Leptin hormone concentration in of high fertile doe and buck rabbits were significantly (P≤0.5 or 0.1) higher than those in low fertile ones, in both two breeds (BB and NZW) rabbits. In each status studied, high and low fertile, and doe and buck rabbits, BB rabbits recorded leptin hormone levels insignificantly higher than those obtained by NZW rabbits. High fertile BB and NZW lactating rabbit does produced milk with Leptin hormone concentration significantly(P≤0.5 or 0.1)higher than recorded by low fertile rabbits, during nursing period up to 5 weeks. Semen ejaculated by high fertile BB and NZW rabbit bucks contained Leptin hormone levels more significantlyhigher (P≤0.5 or 0.1) than those of low fertile bucks. Coclusively, it could be concluded that, there was strongly correlation between Leptin hormone concentration in blood, semen and milk and rabbit reproductivity. BB rabbits recorded Leptin hormone levels insignificantly higher than those of NZW rabbits, so BB rabbits may be characterized by reproductive capability more than NZW rabbits.

Neonatal Gut Microbiota and Human Milk Glycans Cooperate to Attenuate Infection and Inflammation

Glycans of the intestinal mucosa and oligosaccharides of human milk influence the early colonization of the infant gut and establishment of mucosal homeostasis, and differences in colonization of the gut influence the ontogeny of glycans on the surface of the intestinal mucosa, proinflammatory signaling, homeostasis, and resilience to insult. This interkingdom reciprocal interaction is typical of a mutualistic symbiotic relationship. The period in which the infant gut most needs protection from hypersensitive inflammation overlaps with the recommended period of exclusive nursing; electively substituting artificial formula that lacks human milk protective glycans seems ill advised, especially for premature infants.

The promotion of breastfeeding and professional ethics

Systematic reviews of the literature have consistently demonstrated that breastfeeding's biological effect extends beyond the nursing period of an infant to when the child is no longer protected by maternal milk. But breastfeeding is also beneficial for the mother, the family and the society [1]. Yet, despite awareness of the positive impact breastfeeding can have on the health of the individual and to a wider extent of a nation, we paediatricians/neonatologists hold a variety of attitudes toward breastfeeding, depending on professional training background (more cure-than care-oriented), professional interest (intensive care rather than physiology and prevention), personal reproductive history (female versus male; own children breastfed rather than bottle-fed). Whatever the specific interests in medical care or the place breastfeeding holds within a personal value system, the paediatrician/neonatologist will acknowledge its distinct advantages and make an ethical commitment to promoting it [2], within the scope of her/his possibilities, skills, role, competence. Not every paediatrician is called to advocate breastfeeding; not everyone feels the vocation. What we can do is reflect on our everyday practice: shall we muster the available data in support of breastfeeding? Are we sufficiently informed to avert damaging the reputation and culture of breastfeeding? Do we have conflicts of interest? Are we ready to recognize and to disclosure them? The same caution that we exercise when faced with routine clinical problems is equally warranted when advising a mother who is trying to decide whether or not to breastfeed her baby. Caution does not mean reticence, censorship of scientific data or prejudice. Instead, such caution is as much a part of professional ethics as are practice based on sound knowledge and the ability to apply and communicate it appropriately in professional contexts. Eventually, the protection of breastfeeding simply demands and affirms sound professional practice, in other words the practice of quality in health care.

The observed increasing effects of a high fat diet during the intrauterine and nursing periods on obesity and intestinal tumorigenesis in Min/+ mice as adults were not inherited transgenerationally

The observed increasing effects of a high fat diet during the intrauterine and nursing periods on obesity and intestinal tumorigenesis in Min/+ mice as adults were not inherited transgenerationally

Morphometrics, body condition, and growth of the ringed seal (Pusa hispida saimensis) in Lake Saimaa: Implications for conservation

AbstractMorphometrics and growth of the critically endangered Saimaa ringed seal (Pusa hispida saimensis), which inhabits a freshwater lake in Finland were studied using data from 344 carcasses. This study presents the first detailed information on ringed seal pup growth and body condition from birth to the age of one year. Newborn pups were on average 68 cm long and weighed 5 kg. Pups attained the majority of their first year growth during the nursing period. Body condition and growth declined after weaning, but pups recovered from postweaning nutritional deprivation at the age of 8 mo. The seals achieved their maximum body length, girth, and mandible size around the age of 4 yr, and asymptotic body mass two years later. Baculum growth indicated that males reached sexual maturity at age 5–6 yr. The Saimaa ringed seals' asymptotic body length and mass were 132 cm and 59 kg, respectively, which is similar to medium sized marine ringed seals. Saimaa ringed seals' survival to adulthood is extremely low due to high bycatch mortality; furthermore climate change may hamper pup growth and elevate mortality. Therefore we recommend continuation of fishing closures to improve pup survival.

Diet shapes the gut microbiome of pigs during nursing and weaning.

BackgroundThe newborn mammal is rapidly colonized by a complex microbial community, whose importance for host health is becoming increasingly clear. Understanding the forces that shape the early community, especially during the nursing period, is critical to gain insight into how this consortium of microbes is assembled. Pigs present an attractive model for nursing humans, given physiological and compositional similarity of pig and human milk and the utility of pigs in experimental studies. However, there is a paucity of data examining the gut microbiome in nursing pigs from birth through weaning using modern molecular methods and fewer experimental studies that examine the impact of diet on these microbial communities.ResultsWe characterized the fecal microbiome of pigs from birth through 7 weeks of age, during which the animals were transitioned from an exclusive diet of sow milk to a starter diet composed of plant and animal-based components. Microbial communities were clearly distinguishable based on diet, being relatively stable absent dietary changes. Metagenomic sequencing was used to characterize a subset of animals before and after weaning, which identified glycan degradation pathways differing significantly between diets. Predicted enzymes active on milk-derived glycans that are otherwise indigestible to the host animal were enriched in the microbial metagenome of milk-fed animals. In contrast, the bacterial metagenome of weaned animals was enriched in functional pathways involved in plant glycan deconstruction and consumption.ConclusionsThe gut microbiome in young pigs is dramatically shaped by the composition of dietary glycans, reflected by the different functional capacities of the microbiome before and after weaning.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40168-015-0091-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Diving Related Changes in the Blood Oxygen Stores of Rehabilitating Harbor Seal Pups (Phoca vitulina).

Harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) pups begin diving within hours of birth, stimulating the development of the blood oxygen (O2) stores necessary to sustain underwater aerobic metabolism. Since harbor seals experience a brief nursing period, the early-life development of these blood O2 stores is necessary for successful post-weaning foraging. If mothers and pups become prematurely separated, the pup may be transported to a wildlife rehabilitation center for care. Previous studies suggest that the shallow pools and lack of diving in rehabilitation facilities may lead to under-developed blood O2 stores, but diving behavior during rehabilitation has not been investigated. This study aimed to simultaneously study the diving behaviors and blood O2 store development of rehabilitating harbor seal pups. Standard hematology measurements (Hct, Hb, RBC, MCV, MCH, MCHC) were taken to investigate O2 storage capacity and pups were equipped with time-depth recorders to investigate natural diving behavior while in rehabilitation. Linear mixed models of the data indicate that all measured blood parameters changed with age; however, when compared to literature values for wild harbor seal pups, rehabilitating pups have smaller red blood cells (RBCs) that can store less hemoglobin (Hb) and subsequently, less O2, potentially limiting their diving capabilities. Wild pups completed longer dives at younger ages (maximum reported <25 days of age: 9 min) in previous studies than the captive pups in this study (maximum <25 days of age: 2.86 min). However, captivity may only affect the rate of development, as long duration dives were observed (maximum during rehabilitation: 13.6 min at 89 days of age). Further, this study suggests that there may be a positive relationship between RBC size and the frequency of long duration dives. Thus, rehabilitating harbor seal pups should be encouraged to make frequent, long duration dives to prepare themselves for post-release foraging.

Mother–pup vocal recognition in harbour seals: influence of maternal behaviour, pup voice and habitat sound properties

Mother–pup vocal recognition abilities in pinnipeds reflect maternal reproductive strategies. In otariids, mother–pup pairs are frequently separated during lactation, pups are highly mobile at an early stage, and the high densities of colonies increase the risks of confusion between individuals. Accordingly, vocal recognition between mothers and pups is well developed in this group. In contrast, among phocids, the young are less mobile and mothers normally stay with their pups throughout lactation. Hence, the risks of confusion between individuals are relatively low and mother–young vocal recognition abilities are less developed in this family. Harbour seals, Phoca vitulina, are unique among phocids as females forage during lactation and pups are highly mobile throughout the 21–42-day nursing period. We performed playback experiments on 18 breeding female harbour seals to assess their abilities to recognize the calls of their pup and to evaluate the effect of maternal protectiveness and pup vocal stereotypy on the recognition process. In addition, we performed propagation tests to assess pup call propagation efficiency in the environment. As early as 3 days after birth, females were more responsive to calls of their own pup than to calls of nonfilial pups. Female responses also varied depending on their protective behaviour displayed towards their pup. Vocal discrimination abilities were positively correlated with the level of individuality conveyed in pup calls. Considerable differences in the propagation efficiency of pup calls were measured among sites used for mother–pup reunions. This study provides experimental evidence that wild harbour seal females recognize the calls of their pup among others, and that they memorize previous versions of their pup's calls, taking into account age- and size-related effects on vocalizations. Propagation tests further suggest that some mother–pup reunion sites are better suited for vocal recognition than others.

Acoustic analysis of airborne, underwater, and amphibious mother attraction calls by wild harbor seal pups (Phoca vitulina)

Pinnipeds have great potential for comparative studies of mother–pup recognition due to the contrasting maternal strategies adopted by otariids and phocids. Typically, otariid mothers perform foraging trips during lactation, leaving their pups in the colony, whereas phocid mothers remain close by their pups during the entire nursing period. Unlike most phocids, harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) females forage during the nursing period, which exacerbates the need for effective mother–pup vocal recognition in this species. Individual differences and ontogeny-related changes in airborne and underwater harbor seal mother attraction calls were investigated. Acoustic differences between aerial and underwater components of amphibious pup calls were also assessed. Sixteen acoustic parameters were measured on 1,072 calls from 88 pups recorded during the 2011–2013 breeding seasons in the St. Lawrence Estuary, Canada. Discriminant function analysis (DFA) correctly assigned 42.6% and 44.2% of airborne and underwater calls, respectively, to individual pups. A majority of highly individualized acoustic parameters were affected by pup age and body length. These results indicated that harbor seal pup calls encode an individual signature that might allow recognition of young by mothers, in which case females must continuously learn their pup’s changing voice throughout of the rearing period. The fundamental frequency, total duration, and frequency-modulation slopes were constant between aerial and underwater components of amphibious calls. This could facilitate females’ memorization of these highly individualized acoustic parameters to identify their offspring’s call in both media.

The reliability of welfare assessment according to the WelFur-protocol in the nursing period of mink(Neovison vison)is challenged by increasing welfare problems prior to weaning

AbstractThe objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that the body condition of the mink dam, the frequency of dirty nests, frequency of injuries and diarrhoea change significantly with the day of assessment, post-partum, within the data collection period from parturition to weaning, influencing the scores of WelFur at criteria level, but not at principal level or the overall category of mink(Neovison vison)welfare according to the WelFur-Mink protocol. Data from a representative sample of around 120 dams and litters on four farms were collected three to four times in the period stipulated by the WelFur-Mink protocol. WelFur-scores between 0 (worst) and 100 (best) were calculated, aggregated and compared at criteria and principal level. The score for the criterion, ‘Absence of prolonged hunger’ dropped from 86 to 38 after about five weeks of lactation, affecting the principal score ‘Good feeding’, but not by enough to affect the estimated welfare classification. The score for the three other measures also varied with date of assessment but not enough to affect the classification. However, the observed change in the four measures we focused on indicates that a change in the overall WelFur classification can occur if these or other measures change a little more for the better or worse. Possible solutions to this could be reducing the time window for assessment, development of a valid correction factor or to stratify the visits into an early, middle and late visit on a farm within the three registration periods.

Weaning age variation in beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas)

Beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) have a protracted nursing period estimated to last from 6–32 months, although current estimates of beluga nursing duration are derived using approaches subject to capture bias. Recent studies have shown stable isotope profiles of dentin growth layer groups (GLGs) in marine mammal teeth serve as a reliable nursing proxy and can be used to assess individual weaning patterns. We measured stable isotope ratios of nitrogen (δ15N) and carbon (δ13C) of dentin GLGs in teeth from eastern Canadian Arctic belugas to estimate weaning age and assess relative contributions of milk and solid food during the nursing period. δ15N declines of ∼1‰ over the first 3 GLGs of most individuals were interpreted as evidence of weaning. Individual δ15N profiles indicated 15 of 27 whales were completely weaned by the end of their 2nd year, although a number of whales were weaned by the end of their 1st or 3rd year (9 and 3, respectively). Intermediate GLG2 δ15N values relative to GLGs 1 and 3 in...

A partial suckling regime increases milk production in Sarda dairy sheep without affecting meat quality of lambs

The collection of milk from dairy sheep has to be balanced with the need for the sheep to feed their lambs at the start of their lives. In Sardinia the sheep nurse their lambs for the first 30 days of their lives when the lambs are slaughtered to produce the traditional PGI (Protected Geographical Indication) Sardinian lamb. In this study the traditional Total Suckling (TS) system was compared with a Partial Suckling (PS) method in which the sheep were separated from the lambs during the day, milked in the evening, and then were allowed to nurse the lambs overnight. Since the removal of milk enhances milk production, a larger milk yield in the TS group was expected compared to the PS group. The production and composition of the milk were measured during the suckling period and for four weeks after lamb weaning. The growth rates of the lambs and the characteristics of their carcasses were measured after slaughter and an economic evaluation of the milk production to compare the two systems was conducted. Sheep in the Partial Suckling group produced 562g of milk/day more than the sheep in the TS group during the suckling period and 168g/day more milk than the sheep in the PS group after the lambs were slaughtered. This resulted in extra returns of about 10€/ewe compared to the traditional TS technique. Although the milk fat concentration was lower in the milk of the PS sheep during the nursing period (4.6% vs. 6.3%; P<0.01) this rose to 5.4% as soon as the lambs were slaughtered and was not different from that of the TS group (5.6%; P>0.05). There were no significant differences in the characteristics of the carcasses of the two groups of lambs, with the exception of the cold dressing percentage, which was significantly lower in carcasses from the PS group (60% vs. 65.5%; P<0.05). It can be therefore concluded that PS allows harvesting more milk than the TS traditionally adopted by Sardinian shepherds thus resulting in greater returns from the sale of milk. In addition, this rearing system did not affect the production and quality of meat from the lambs.