Number Of Whiteflies Research Articles

Development of real-time RT-PCR assays for the detection of Cucumber vein yellowing virus (CVYV) and Cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus (CYSDV) in the whitefly vector Bemisia tabaci

Reverse transcription followed by real-time PCR assays based on TaqMan ® chemistry have been developed for the detection and quantification of Cucumber vein yellowing virus (CVYV) and Cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus (CYSDV) in individual adults of the whitefly vector Bemisia tabaci. The method includes an internal control for the detection of a gene from B. tabaci to compensate for variations in extraction efficiency. The assays designed were used to estimate proportions of viruliferous whiteflies collected from commercial greenhouse-grown crops in Spain. In a significant number of whiteflies, both viruses were detected and their amounts were estimated. The assays could be used to assist risk assessment of CVYV and CYSDV which constitute limiting factors in cucurbit crops. They are also suited to investigating the epidemiology and plant–virus–vector relationships in these diseases.

Greenhouse Whitefly (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) Dispersal Under Different UV-Light Environments

The greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae), is known to respond to UV light (UV). Field studies were conducted to improve our understanding of the behavioral effects and practical implications of using UV-blocking plastic films for the control of whitefly. Adult whiteflies were released in outdoor-located choice-chamber experiments with compartments clad with a range of films that transmitted incident UV to different extents. In release-recapture experiments, a very small proportion of the whiteflies recovered had dispersed into compartments where the entire UV spectrum was blocked, whereas the major proportion preferred compartments with UV. Compartments clad with films that blocked UV below 375 nm attracted significantly more whiteflies than films that blocked UV below 385 nm, whereas the absorption of UV wavelengths above 385 nm did not show any further effect on whitefly numbers. A reduction in the side cladding of the compartments by >20% significantly reduced the advantage of using UV-blocking films. Adult whitefly did not discriminate between direct- and diffused-light environments, as long as the UV-absorbing properties of the films were equivalent. Whitefly dispersal was influenced by the time of the day when adult whitefly were released, with a higher proportion of whitefly avoiding compartments clad with UV-blocking films, at times of the day when light intensities were higher. The future use of UV-blocking films as a potentially highly effective component of integrated pest management systems for the control of whitefly is discussed.

Efficacy of Spiromesifen Against Greenhouse Whitefly (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) on Strawberry

Spiromesifen is a novel insecticide (belonging to the new chemical class of spirocyclic phenyl-substituted tetronic acids) with a unique mode of action. Laboratory and field experiments were conducted to test the efficacy of this insecticide against the greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum Westwood (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) on strawberry, Fragaria ananassa (L.). Laboratory experiments showed that spiromesifen at 0.5 and 1.0 μg·mL−1 a.i. inhibited egg hatching by 80% and 100%, respectively, whereas at concentrations of 3.1, 3.0, and 10.0 μg·mL−1 a.i., this insecticide, respectively, killed 100% of the first, second, and third instar nymphs. Much lower toxicity to adults was observed. Field trials revealed that application of spiromesifen reduced the whitefly egg numbers by 61% to 80% from 2 to 3 weeks posttreatment in comparison with the pyriproxyfen treatment, whereas the application lowered the egg numbers by 34% to 73% from 2 to 5 weeks posttreatment compared with the buprofezin treatment. In comparison with pyriproxyfen treatment, spiromesifen application decreased the numbers of immature whiteflies by 29% to 92% from 1 to 6 weeks posttreatment. The effect of spiromesifen on reduction of immatures was similar to that of buprofezin. Also, the efficacy of spiromesifen on suppression of adult numbers was comparable to that of pyriproxyfen or buprofezin. Spiromesifen shows promise for inclusion in integrated greenhouse whitefly management programs and insecticide resistance management programs on strawberry.

Combined effects of the entomopathogenic fungus, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus Apopka-97, and the generalist predator, Dicyphus hesperus, on whitefly populations

The effects of intraguild interactions between Dicyphus hesperus Knight (Hemiptera: Miridae) and Paecilomyces fumosoroseus Apopka-97 (PFR-97TM) (Wize) Brown and Smith (Ascomycota: Hypocreales) on Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) populations were investigated in tomato greenhouse microcosms. Conditions were established in which interference or synergy would most likely occur; namely, a high number of available whiteflies were combined with large numbers of both D. hesperus and PFR-97TM. We measured live whitefly density in a factorial repeated measures experiment where plants were provided or withheld releases of D. hesperus and/or applications of PFR-97TM for 6 weeks. Releases of D. hesperus were made at a rate of 10 adults/plant during the first and third week and PFR-97TM suspensions were applied with a backpack sprayer at a rate of 18 × 107, 1.3 × 107 and 1.2 × 107 viable blastospores/ml during the first, third and fourth week, respectively. Results revealed a non-significant interaction effect between D. hesperus and PFR-97TM, indicating that their actions were independent. Individual whitefly reductions of 48% and 35% were achieved by PFR-97TM and D. hesperus, respectively. Collectively, the natural enemies reduced whitefly densities by 62% relative to the controls. The density of D. hesperus adults was unaffected by multiple applications of PFR-97TM. These results suggest that the combination of generalist entomopathogenic fungi and generalist predators has the potential to cause increased pest mortality despite evidence of minimal interference.

Evaluation of Serangium parcesetosum (Col.: Coccinellidae) for biological control of Bemisia tabaci under greenhouse conditions

The cotton whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Genn.) (Hom., Aleyrodidae) is increasingly a very important pest on many vegetables, field crops and ornamental plants. Therefore, controlling of this pest is still needed especially under glasshouse conditions. The specialist whiteflies’ predator, Serangium parcesetosum Sicard (Col., Coccinellidae) appears to have a great potential for the cotton whitefly control. In this study, the dynamic changes in B. tabaci populations in glasshouse cabins in response to S. parcesetosum were monitored. B. tabaci were introduced to cotton plants in three cabins in average of 50 adults per plant. One and two weeks later, adult females and males of S. parcesetosum were introduced at a rate of one female and one male per plant in the first and second cabins, respectively. The third cabin was considered as a control. The results showed that the mean number of whiteflies in the control cabin was found significantly higher than that of either when S. parcesetosum was introduced 1 or 2 weeks after the infestation with the whitefly. Also, the mean number of B. tabaci was significantly higher when the predator was introduced 2 weeks rather than 1 week after B. tabaci infestation. The maximum mean weekly number of whiteflies/plant was 192.3 in the second week, whereas it was 294.6 in the third week and 1136.4 in the fifth week, in first, second and control cabins, respectively. In the last experimental week, the mean weekly numbers were 74.7, 122.9 and 684.7 whiteflies/plant in the three cabins, respectively. S. parcesetosum has been successfully fed, reproduced and established its population on B. tabaci on cotton plants. The mean weekly number of the predatory individuals increased gradually with the progress of the experimental time. The results demonstrated that the maximum reduction percentage in B. tabaci population was 90.7 and 86.5% in the fifth week after B. tabaci infestation, when the predator was introduced 1 and 2 weeks after the infestation with the whiteflies, respectively. Nevertheless, it is speculated that an earlier release of S. parcesetosum would be more effective in the biological control of B. tabaci.

Current characteristics of cassava mosaic disease in postepidemic areas increase the range of possible management options

AbstractAs a case study to document the current characteristics of cassava mosaic virus disease (CMD) in postepidemic areas, surveys were carried out, in 2003 and 2004, in Siaya District of western Kenya. This was an area affected by a severe CMD pandemic in the late 1990s. Data recorded on cassava varieties were CMD incidence, severity index and number of adult whiteflies. Farmers (174) were interviewed on their understanding of the disease and their knowledge and practice of management interventions. Cassava cultivation was being re‐established, but local landraces predominated. Resistant varieties were present 13% in 2003, and 4% in 2004, of the surveyed fields. Adhiambolera was the most common variety, occurring in 35% and 40% of fields in 2003 and 2004, respectively, and had an average CMD incidence of 82% in 2003 and 73% in 2004. By contrast, the CMD‐resistant variety Migyera had a low mean incidence (28% in 2003). The overall incidence for both years was 71%, consisting of 61% as a result of infection through planting diseased cuttings and 10% as a result of whitefly infection. In 2003, the total incidence was 72% and the average severity 2.7 (severity index), while in 2004 the incidence was 78% and the severity 2.6. There were significant severity variations in each division of the Siaya District during the 2 years except for Karemo and Ukwala. The abundance of whiteflies on the top five leaves of plants was low in 2003 but high in 2004, with means of 1 and 16, respectively, over the same seven divisions in both years, although this variation was thought to be because of seasonal factors. East African cassava mosaic virus‐Uganda was the predominant geminivirus present in every division. Phytosanitation by farmers was minimal, as evidenced by 29% of farmers using a selection of CMD‐free stems for planting and 15% using hand‐roguing for CMD management. Occurrence of more than 25% CMD‐free plants in 2004, moderate CMD severity and limited spread provide a conducive environment for the use of phytosanitation as a CMD control measure that can be immediately used by farmers growing their own cassava varieties.

Partial resistance to Bean golden mosaic virus in a transgenic common bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.) line expressing a mutated rep gene

The rep gene of Bean golden mosaic virus (BGMV) is essential for virus replication. A mutated rep gene with amino acid codon change in the putative nucleoside triphosphate (NTP) binding motif D262R was created. Phaseolus vulgaris transformation was achieved with a vector that contained the mutated rep and bar genes. A total of 17 initial (T 0) transformants were analyzed. One line (M1/4) showed tolerance to glufosinate ammonium and partial resistance to the virus, that is, disease incidence depended on inoculation level. The incidence of BGMV increased with the increasing number of viruliferous whiteflies per plant, both in the transgenic and in the control plants. However, the number of symptomless plants was significantly higher in the transgenic group. The line M1/4 was studied during several generations and presented stability in the transgene loci and virus resistance. Southern blot analysis with genomic DNA of eight generations led to an estimate of two copies of the rep gene integrated at the same locus. RT-PCR analysis revealed the presence of both bar and rep genes transcripts. The mutated REP protein was present in amounts detectable by Western blot analysis in transgenic plants.

Examination of the Biological Effects of High Anionic Peroxidase Production in Tobacco Plants Grown under Field Conditions. I. Insect Pest Damage

At least 25 wild type and high peroxidase tobacco Nicotiana tabacum L. plants were examined semiweekly over several weeks for pest insect distribution and damage in a 2 year field study. Incidence and/or severity of naturally occurring caterpillar damage (dingy cutworm (Feltia ducens Walker), black cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel), tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta L.), and false tobacco budworm (= corn earworm Helicoverpa zea (Boddie)) was significantly reduced at several sample dates for high peroxidase vs. wild type plants. These results parallel those of prior laboratory studies with caterpillars. The number of adult whiteflies (Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) per plant was significantly reduced on high peroxidase compared to wild type plants on most sample dates in both years. The number of plants with leaves containing >100 aphids (primarily Myzus persicae Sulzer) per leaf on high peroxidase plants was significantly lower that on wild type plants after an equivalent invasion period in both years. A significantly higher proportion of aphids were found dead on leaf five of high peroxidase compared to wild type plants at most sample dates in both years. These results indicate that high peroxidase plants have resistance to a wide range of insects, implicating this enzyme as a broad range resistance mechanism.

Analysis of the temporal and spatial disease progress of Bemisia tabaci‐transmitted Cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus and Cucumber vein yellowing virus in cucumber

Cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus (CYSDV) has been present in greenhouse‐grown cucumber in Spain since 1992. However, in the autumn of 2000 Cucumber vein yellowing virus (CVYV) was introduced, leading to mixed infections of both Bemisia tabaci‐transmitted viruses. The temporal and spatial spread of disease symptoms were monitored in experimental plastic‐covered greenhouses during six consecutive cucumber plantings from 2000 to 2002. Using linear regression analysis of 46 disease‐progress curves, the Gompertz model best described the CYSDV epidemics in 2000, whereas the logistic model best described the development of CYSDV and CVYV epidemics in 2001 and 2002. The fitted models were used to calculate the amount of degree Celsius‐days at half‐maximum infection in the greenhouses (°D0·5). After multiple regression analysis, 56% of the variation in °D0·5 of CYSDV was related to the numbers of whiteflies infesting the cucumber crops, and was independent of the mean temperatures in the greenhouses. In contrast, 76% of the variation in °D0·5 of CVYV was related to both the numbers of vectors present and maximum temperature. Symptom expression in cucumbers mechanically inoculated with CVYV was most prevalent when plants were grown at regimes of at least 28°C day temperature. According to analysis of spread using Taylor's power law, beta‐binomial distribution fitting, and the ordinary runs test, the prevalence of CVYV showed significant overdispersion, whereas that of CYSDV did not. The χ2 test of independence and Spearman's rank correlation coefficient were used to measure co‐occurrence and covariation, respectively, during the first half of the cultivation period. These results showed that the two diseases were not associated.

Characterisation of a Quantitative Resistance to Vector Transmission of Tomato yellow leaf curl virus in Lycopersicon pimpinellifolium

Two wild genotypes from the same species Lycopersicon pimpinellifolium, WVA106 (susceptible) and INRA-Hirsute (so-called ‘resistant’), were compared with respect to their reaction to Tomato yellow leaf curl virus isolate Reunion (TYLCV-Mld[RE]), using both whitefly-mediated inoculation and graft inoculation. Disease incidence and symptom severity were scored. Presence and quantification of viral DNA were assessed by dot blot hybridisation. Upon insect inoculation, accession INRA-Hirsute showed a moderate resistance against TYLCV that was overcome by a high inoculation pressure obtained by increasing the cumulative number of inoculative whiteflies. Temporal analyses of the disease progress in relation to this criterion exhibited that the protection was quantitative, mainly reducing the TYLCV-Mld[RE] incidence by at maximum 50% at low inoculation pressure. When graft inoculated, the final TYLCV-Mld[RE] disease incidence was 100% in both susceptible and resistant genotypes with severe symptoms, suggesting a reduction of virus transmission by a vector resistance as a possible mechanism. Implications of using such type of resistance in breeding programmes are discussed.

Insect Management in Floriculture: How Important Is Sanitation in Avoiding Insect Problems?

Sanitation, which includes removing plant and growing medium debris, is an important component of any greenhouse or nursery pest management program. However, there is minimal quantitative information on how sanitation practices can reduce pest problems. In this study, conducted from May through Nov. 2005, we evaluated plant and growing medium debris as a source of insect pests from four greenhouses located in central Illinois. Two 32-gal refuse containers were placed in each greenhouse with a 3 × 5-inch yellow sticky card attached to the underside of each refuse container lid. Each week, yellow sticky cards and plastic refuse bags were collected from the containers and insects captured on the yellow sticky cards were identified. Insects captured on the yellow sticky cards were consistent across the four greenhouses with western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis), fungus gnats (Bradysia spp.), and whiteflies (Bemisia spp.) the primary insects present each week. Insect numbers, in order of prevalence on the yellow sticky cards, varied across the four locations, which may be related to the type of plant debris discarded. For example, extremely high numbers of adult whiteflies (range = 702 to 1930) were captured on yellow sticky cards in one greenhouse each month from August through November. This was due to the presence of yellow sage (Lantana camera), bee balm (Monarda didyma), garden verbena (Verbena × hybrida), common zinnia (Zinnia elegans), sage (Salvia spp.) and fuchsia (Fuschia spp.) debris that was heavily-infested with the egg, nymph, pupa, and adult stages of whiteflies. High western flower thrips adult numbers in the greenhouses were generally associated with plant types such as marguerite daisy (Dendranthema frutescens) and pot marigold (Calendula officinalis) disposed while in bloom with opened yellow flowers, which contained adult western flower thrips. Based on the results of this study, it is important that greenhouse producers timely remove plant and growing medium debris from greenhouses or place debris into refuse containers with tight-sealing lids to prevent insect pests from escaping.

Airflow Patterns through Roof Openings of a Naturally Ventilated Greenhouse and their Effect on Insect Penetration

Experiments were carried out to study the airflow through continuous vertical roof openings of a naturally ventilated greenhouse. The major objectives of this work were to investigate the effect of ambient wind speed and direction, with respect to the greenhouse, on the mean and turbulent characteristics of the airflow. The air velocity was measured simultaneously at the two edges of each of the greenhouse openings by one-dimensional sonic anemometers and at the mid-span of the openings by a three-dimensional sonic anemometer. It is shown that when the wind is not perpendicular to the plane of the openings there are outflow and inflow, at the windward and leeward edges of the openings, respectively. A wind blowing from the back of the openings and nearly perpendicular to them reduced the mean air velocity at the two edges but did not change the turbulent velocity much. Over a considerable part of the day the mean and turbulent air velocities scale with the ambient wind. Monitoring whitefly population in the roof openings and around the greenhouse indicated a main daily activity period between 08:00 and 12:00. The number of whiteflies trapped under the eastern roof opening was significantly higher than the number trapped under the other roof openings. This was in agreement with the higher probability to have inflow in the eastern opening than in the western one as measured by the sonic anemometers.

Effects of Living and Synthetic Mulch on the Population Dynamics of Whiteflies and Aphids, Their Associated Natural Enemies, and Insect-Transmitted Plant Diseases in Zucchini

Living and synthetic mulches were evaluated for control of the silverleaf whitefly, Bemisia argentifolii Bellows and Perring, and aphids in zucchini plantings. Two living mulches, buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum Moench, and white clover, Trifolium repens L., and two synthetic mulches (reflective and white) were evaluated during the fall of 2002 and 2003. Results from pan-traps, yellow sticky traps, and foliar counts showed that reflective and buckwheat mulches consistently had fewer numbers of adult whiteflies and aphids compared with the standard white mulch treatments. In 2003, a significant increase in the abundance of natural enemies was recorded in all treatments. Living mulch treatments had higher natural enemy populations than synthetic mulch and bare-ground treatments. However, there were no differences in the species diversity of natural enemies found between treatments. The effectiveness of mulches for controlling immature whitefly numbers and the incidence of squash silverleaf disorder were inconsistent between years. Additional data taken at the end of the 2003 season revealed that two viral strains (PRSV-W and WMV-2) were present in the field. However, visual symptoms associated with these viral diseases did not occur until the end of the season.

Intraguild predation by the generalist predator Dicyphus hesperus on the parasitoid Encarsia formosa

Predation was measured in the laboratory by Dicyphus hesperus females on patches of greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) pupae. The patches contained different proportions of unparasitized pupae and those parastisized as nymphs by Encarsia formosa. Dicyphus hesperus fed readily on parasitized pupae and the number of parasitized pupae consumed increased with the proportion available indicating a capacity for intraguild predation. However, D. hesperus females did not display a preference for feeding on parasitized pupae versus unparasitized pupae. Dicyphus hesperus adults were released at three densities into greenhouse enclosures containing tomato plants harbouring greenhouse whitefly and immature E. formosa. Numbers of killed and parasitized whitefly nymphs and pupae and the total number of healthy whitefly were compared among Dicyphus density treatments. On upper leaves, the amount of predation on whitefly nymphs was higher at the highest predator density than at the lower density or in enclosures where D. hesperus was not released. On lower leaves, the number of parasitized pupae was lowest with the highest predator density indicating a negative effect of intraguild predation by D. hesperus on E. formosa. Despite this, Dicyphus density did not affect the density of whitefly in the presence of E. formosa. The results are discussed as they relate to concurrent use of D. hesperus and E. formosa for regulation of greenhouse whitefly populations.

Mulches reduce aphid-borne viruses and whiteflies in cantaloupe

We compared reflective plastic and wheat straw mulches with conventional bare soil for managing aphid-borne virus diseases and silverleaf whitefly in cantaloupe. The occurrence of aphid-borne virus diseases was significantly reduced with both mulches as opposed to bare soil, and reflective plastic performed better than wheat straw. Silverleaf whitefly numbers, both adults and nymphs, were reduced equally by plastic mulch and wheat straw, and were significantly lower than with bare soil. Reflective plastic produced mature melons sooner and more cartons per acre than the other production systems. The reflective plastic system also produced a greater number of large-size melons, which are favored in the late-season market. Plants grown over straw mulch produced higher overall yields, including large-size melons, than those grown over bare soil.

Impact of cotton planting date and nitrogen fertilization on Bemisia argentifolii populations

Abstract The silverleaf whitefly (Bemisia argentifolii Bellows and Perring) is a widely distributed pest of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) and the population levels may be affected by rates of nitrogen fertilization and planting date. Field experiments were conducted to investigate the impact of cotton planting date and nitrogen fertilization on silverleaf whitefly population dynamics. Cotton was planted on 26 April and 8 June, for the early and late plantings, respectively. Nitrogen treatments consisted of soil applications of 0, 112, 168 and 224 kg of nitrogen per hectare. The population levels of adult whiteflies were much higher on early-planted cotton than on late planting. Also, increased numbers of adult whiteflies on both early and late plantings occurred with increasing amounts of applied nitrogen. Applied nitrogen increased seed cotton yields of early plantings but had no effect on the yields of late plantings.

EFFECT OF SALINITY AND BACILLUS SUBTILIS ON WHITE FLY (TRIALEURODES VAPORARIORUM, WESTWOOD) IN HYDROPONICALLY GROWN TOMATOES (LYCOPERSICON ESCULENTUM MILL.)

ISHS VII International Symposium on Protected Cultivation in Mild Winter Climates: Production, Pest Management and Global Competition EFFECT OF SALINITY AND BACILLUS SUBTILIS ON WHITE FLY (TRIALEURODES VAPORARIORUM, WESTWOOD) IN HYDROPONICALLY GROWN TOMATOES (LYCOPERSICON ESCULENTUM MILL.)

The role of a rubidium marked natural enemy refuge in the establishment and movement of Bemisia parasitoids

We examined the movement of aphelinid parasitoids from overwintering refuges into adjacent crops of cantaloupe and cotton. Eretmocerus eremicus and Encarsia spp. are important parasitoids attacking Bemisia tabaci Biotype B in the desert agricultural region of southeastern California. Movement was studied by marking naturally occurring field populations of parasitoids with rubidium chloride (RbCl). Two experimental study sites, each composed of natural enemy refuge strips and adjacent crops of cantaloupe and cotton, were grown for 2 years. Marking studies using RbCl demonstrated that the refuge strips supported early-season parasitoids which later migrated into adjacent crops. Between 15 - 63% of Eretmocerus eremicus caught in adjacent cotton and cantaloupe originated from the natural enemy refuges. Between 40 - 75% of aphelinids attacking B. tabaci in natural enemy refuges were Encarsia spp. while 98% of the marked, captured parasitoids in adjacent cotton and cantaloupe were Eretmocerus spp. Refuges produced higher numbers of whiteflies, relative to parasitoids, during spring months, showing the importance of refuge plants selective for natural enemies. This is the first known study using the marker RbCl that shows movement of naturally occurring Eretmocerus between an overwintering location and an adjacent crop.

Natural history of whitefly in Costa Rica: an evolutionary starting point

Abstract. 1. To understand evolution of foraging behaviour in the whitefly parasitoid Encarsia formosa (Hymenoptera, Aphelinidae), natural densities and distributions of whitefly (Homoptera, Aleyrodidae) were quantified in E. formosa's presumed area of origin, the Neotropics.2. Leaves were collected in Costa Rican nature areas along long transects (2–4 km), short transects (100 m), within 3‐D plots (50 dm3−2.3 m3) and along suspension bridges within the canopy, and checked for presence of whitefly nymphs.3. Generalised linear mixed modelling revealed that the number of hosts on the lower side of a leaflet of an average plant within an average spot of an average transect could be described by a Poisson distribution with mean and variance equal to 0.241, in a ratio of I1:I2:I3:I4 = 0.14:0.23:0.26:0.37. The Poisson mean was affected largely by the plant and less by the spot or transect. Variation in leaf area explained little of the variation between plants. Based on the shape of the opening in vacated puparia, the probability that a whitefly became parasitised eventually was 12% on an average leaflet. Whitefly density was much lower in the canopy than at the forest floor in the same area.4. Semivariance analyses showed that in one of the three short transects, the numbers of whiteflies on leaves were spatially dependent. In four of seven 3‐D plots at least one level of spatial dependence could be detected.5. Results are discussed in the context of understanding evolution of foraging behaviour by E. formosa.

Estimation of the Number of Adult Whiteflies in Emergence Cages Based on Volume and Weight of Samples

Estimation of the Number of Adult Whiteflies in Emergence Cages Based on Volume and Weight of Samples