Number Of Sports Research Articles

Few and Far Between: Māori and Pacific Contributions to New Zealand Cricket

This contribution represents the first sustained discussion of factors determining the relative lack of participation by Māori and Pacific Island players within New Zealand cricket. It begins with a consideration of the factors that shaped a degree of Māori involvement in rugby and that should have been preconditions for the embrace of cricket during the nineteenth century. It then examines a range of demographic, geographic and socio-economic elements that precluded such involvement other than among an atypical Māori and Pacific elite. With the sharp increase in Māori urbanization and in Pacific migration to New Zealand after the Second World War, various explanations for the apparent ‘Polynesianization’ of a number of sports are then set against the continued failure of cricket to appeal. Again, cultural and socio-economic explanations are preferred to those of a more physiological or psychological nature offered by the New Zealand media and some former players. Finally, the development and cultural significance of kilikiti is considered as an alternative to traditional cricket.

An exercise protocol that simulates the activity patterns of elite junior squash

Squash is a popular racket sport that requires intermittent activity with frequent bursts of near maximal-intensity exercise. Consequently, effective physiological and thermoregulatory responses are important contributors to performance during squash match-play. Controlled field-based simulation protocols have been introduced in a growing number of sports, which allow sports scientists to investigate changes in physiology and the efficacy of various interventions in sport-specific contexts. This study aimed to develop an exercise protocol that simulates the physiological requirements of elite squash match-play. Eight elite junior squash players (age 16.2 ± 0.8 years, height 1.76 ± 0.06 m, body mass 61.3 ± 5.9 kg; mean ± s) completed the following in a randomized order: (1) a squash match against a player of similar standard and (2) a squash-specific incremental exercise protocol (multistage squash test [MST]) followed by the squash simulation protocol (SSP). The multistage squash test was continued for 18.0 ± 1.0 min and elicited near maximal post-MST heart rates, blood lactate concentrations and ratings of perceived exertion (198 ± 9 beats · min−1, 5.7 ± 1.7 mmol · l−1 and 18 ± 1, respectively). The SSP was 12.2 min in length compared with mean game length during competitive matches of 10.0 ± 1.6 min (P = 0.27). Peak heart rates were similar during the SSP and match-play (192 ± 11 and 189 ± 6 beats · min−1, respectively; P = 0.44). Mean exercising heart rates were similar during the SSP (180 ± 8 beats · min−1) and match-play (179 ± 13 beats · min−1; P = 0.73). Peak blood lactate concentrations during the SSP and match-play were 3.5 ± 1.5 and 2.4 ± 1.2 mmol · l−1 (P = 0.07), respectively. Peak ratings of perceived exertion during the SSP and match-play were similar (17 ± 2 and 17 ± 2, respectively; P = 0.64). It was concluded that the SSP closely replicated the demands of squash match-play in elite junior squash players. Furthermore, the SSP provides coaches and scientific support staff with a controlled squash-specific exercise protocol that has potential application in the objective investigation of a range of interventions such as training programmes, nutritional supplements and strategies to maintain core body temperature.

Non-fatal sports and recreational violent injuries among children and teenagers, United States, 2001–2003

An estimated 2.7 million non-fatal unintentional sports and recreational injuries are treated in U.S. hospital emergency departments (EDs) annually. However, little is known about the number of sports and recreational injuries resulting from violent behavior. Data for 2001-2003 on sports and recreational injuries were obtained from the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System-All Injury Program (NEISS-AIP)-a national sample of 66 U.S. EDs. National estimates and rates of persons treated for violence-related sports and recreational injuries in EDs are compared to those treated for unintentional sports and recreational injuries. Types of injuries and injury circumstances are described. During the study period, an estimated 6,705 (8.3 per 100,000; 95% confidence intervals (CI), 6.3-10.3) children and teenagers with violence-related sports and recreational injuries were treated in U.S. EDs annually, compared to 2,698,634 children and teenagers with unintentional sports and recreational injuries. Thus, violent behavior accounted for 0.25% of sports and recreational injuries. The highest incidence rate (13.6 per 100,000) for violence-related sports and recreational injuries was for children aged 10-14 years. Most patients with violence-related sports and recreational injuries were treated and released from the ED. A majority of those with violence-related sports and recreational injuries were injured to the head/neck region (52.2%), of which 24.1% were treated for traumatic brain injuries. Most violent injuries resulted from being pushed or hit (65.6%); the most common sports and recreational activity varied by age: playground (65.2%) for children < or =9 years; bicycling (26.7%) for 10-14-year-olds; basketball (45.3%) for 15-19-year-olds. National ED surveillance systems can provide useful information pertaining to prevention programs designed to reduce sports and recreational injuries resulting from violent behavior and unintentional causes.

Where tendons and ligaments meet bone: attachment sites ('entheses') in relation to exercise and/or mechanical load.

Entheses (insertion sites, osteotendinous junctions, osteoligamentous junctions) are sites of stress concentration at the region where tendons and ligaments attach to bone. Consequently, they are commonly subject to overuse injuries (enthesopathies) that are well documented in a number of sports. In this review, we focus on the structure-function correlations of entheses on both the hard and the soft tissue sides of the junction. Particular attention is paid to mechanical factors that influence form and function and thus to exploring the relationship between entheses and exercise. The molecular parameters indicative of adaptation to mechanical stress are evaluated, and the basis on which entheses are classified is explained. The application of the 'enthesis organ' concept (a collection of tissues adjacent to the enthesis itself, which jointly serve the common function of stress dissipation) to understanding enthesopathies is considered and novel roles of adipose tissue at entheses are reviewed. A distinction is made between different locations of fat at entheses, and possible functions include space-filling and proprioception. The basic anchorage role of entheses is considered in detail and comparisons are explored between entheses and other biological 'anchorage' sites. The ability of entheses for self-repair is emphasized and a range of enthesopathies common in sport are reviewed (e.g. tennis elbow, golfer's elbow, jumper's knee, plantar fasciitis and Achilles insertional tendinopathies). Attention is drawn to the degenerative, rather than inflammatory, nature of most enthesopathies in sport. The biomechanical factors contributing to the development of enthesopathies are reviewed and the importance of considering the muscle-tendon-bone unit as a whole is recognized. Bony spur formation is assessed in relation to other changes at entheses which parallel those in osteoarthritic synovial joints.

Survey of Sport Participation and Sport Injury in Calgary and Area High Schools

To examine (1) sport participation and (2) sport injury in adolescents. This was a retrospective survey design. In total, 2873 adolescents were recruited from a random sample of classes from 24 Calgary and area high schools. Each subject completed an in-class questionnaire in March 2004. Overall and sport-specific participation rates (number of sport participants/number of students completing survey). Overall and sport-specific injury rates (number of injuries/number of participants). In the previous 1 year, 94% of students participated in sport. The top 5 sports by participation for males were basketball, hockey, football, snowboarding, and soccer, and for females, basketball, dance, volleyball, snowboarding, and soccer. The injury rate including only injuries requiring medical attention was 40.2 injuries/100 adolescents/y (95% CI, 38.4-42.1), presenting to a hospital emergency department was 8.1 injuries/100 adolescents/y (95% CI, 7.1-9.2), resulting in time loss from sport was 49.9 injuries/100 adolescents/y (95% CI, 48-51.8), and resulting in loss of consciousness was 9.3 injuries/100 adolescents/y (95% CI, 8.3-10.5). The greatest proportion of injuries occurred in basketball, hockey, soccer, and snowboarding. The top 5 body parts injured were the ankle, knee, head, back, and wrist. The top 5 injury types were sprain, contusion, concussion, fracture, and muscle strain. A previous injury was associated with 49% of the injuries and direct contact with 45% of injuries. Rates of participation in sport and sport injury are high in adolescents. Future research should focus on prevention strategies in sports with high participation and injury rates to maximize population health impact.

Attributions of Athletes on Collegiate Sports Teams

This study investigated the patterns of attributions for success made by intercollegiate athletes in three categories: more versus less successful teams, men versus women athletes, and individual versus group sport participants. 74 men and 83 women on 17 varsity teams across a number of sports took the Sports Attribution Style Scale, measuring internal, stable, controllable, intentional, and global attributions. It was hypothesized that (a) the athletes on more successful teams would have higher internal, stable, controllable, and intentional attributions, (b) that athletes in individual sports would have lower internal, stable, and controllable attributions, and (c) that women would score higher on all five attributions. Profile analyses of the attributions led to the confirmation of the first hypothesis. For the second hypothesis, the pattern of sport attributions did not differ for individual and team athletes. The third hypothesis was not confirmed. Women athletes scored higher on the attributional dimensions (except globality).

Vitamin D insufficiency in adolescent males in Southern Tasmania: prevalence, determinants, and relationship to bone turnover markers.

There are limited data on vitamin D insufficiency in healthy children. The aim of this study was to describe the prevalence and determinants of vitamin D insufficiency and its association with bone turnover in adolescent boys (N = 136, mean age 16 years). Sun exposure and physical activity were assessed by questionnaire. Vitamin D stores were assessed by serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (25[OH]D3). Bone turnover was assessed by bone-specific alkaline phosphatase (BAP) and urinary pyridinoline (PYR) to creatinine (Cr) ratio (mmol PYR/micromol Cr). The mean 25(OH)D3 level was low (44 nmol/l; 68% < 50 nmol/l; range, 16-87) and was associated with self-reported sun exposure on winter weekends (r = 0.23, p = 0.01), school holidays (r = 0.22, p = 0.01), and weekdays (r = 0.17, p = 0.05). It was also associated with number of sports (r = 0.34, p < 0.001) and vigorous activity (r = 0.22, p = 0.01) but not television, computer, and video watching (r = -0.04, p = 0.68). In multivariate analysis, number of sports but not total sun exposure remained significantly associated with 25(OH)D3. Furthermore, 25(OH)D3 was significantly associated with BAP in cutpoint analysis (cutpoint 55 nmol/l, p = 0.03) but not continuous analysis (r = -0.12, p = 0.16) and PYR in both forms (r = -0.23, p = 0.01, cutpoint 43 nmol/l, p = 0.01). In conclusion, vitamin D insufficiency is common in healthy adolescent boys in winter in our setting, is primarily derived from sports-related sun exposure, and is associated with bone turnover markers. These data suggest that a 25(OH)D3 level of at least 43-55 nmol/l is required for optimal bone health in children.

Physiological changes associated with the pre-event taper in athletes.

Some of the physiological changes associated with the taper and their relationship with athletic performance are now known. Since the 1980s a number of studies have examined various physiological responses associated with the cardiorespiratory, metabolic, hormonal, neuromuscular and immunological systems during the pre-event taper across a number of sports. Changes in the cardiorespiratory system may include an increase in maximal oxygen uptake, but this is not a necessary prerequisite for taper-induced gains in performance. Oxygen uptake at a given submaximal exercise intensity can decrease during the taper, but this response is more likely to occur in less-skilled athletes. Resting, maximal and submaximal heart rates do not change, unless athletes show clear signs of overreaching before the taper. Blood pressure, cardiac dimensions and ventilatory function are generally stable, but submaximal ventilation may decrease. Possible haematological changes include increased blood and red cell volume, haemoglobin, haematocrit, reticulocytes and haptoglobin, and decreased red cell distribution width. These changes in the taper suggest a positive balance between haemolysis and erythropoiesis, likely to contribute to performance gains. Metabolic changes during the taper include: a reduced daily energy expenditure; slightly reduced or stable respiratory exchange ratio; increased peak blood lactate concentration; and decreased or unchanged blood lactate at submaximal intensities. Blood ammonia concentrations show inconsistent trends, muscle glycogen concentration increases progressively and calcium retention mechanisms seem to be triggered during the taper. Reduced blood creatine kinase concentrations suggest recovery from training stress and muscle damage, but other biochemical markers of training stress and performance capacity are largely unaffected by the taper. Hormonal markers such as testosterone, cortisol, testosterone : cortisol ratio, 24-hour urinary cortisol : cortisone ratio, plasma and urinary catecholamines, growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-1 are sometimes affected and changes can correlate with changes in an athlete's performance capacity. From a neuromuscular perspective, the taper usually results in markedly increased muscular strength and power, often associated with performance gains at the muscular and whole body level. Oxidative enzyme activities can increase, along with positive changes in single muscle fibre size, metabolic properties and contractile properties. Limited research on the influence of the taper on athletes' immune status indicates that small changes in immune cells, immunoglobulins and cytokines are unlikely to compromise overall immunological protection. The pre-event taper may also be characterised by psychological changes in the athlete, including a reduction in total mood disturbance and somatic complaints, improved somatic relaxation and self-assessed physical conditioning scores, reduced perception of effort and improved quality of sleep. These changes are often associated with improved post-taper performances. Mathematical models indicate that the physiological changes associated with the taper are the result of a restoration of previously impaired physiological capacities (fatigue and adaptation model), and the capacity to tolerate training and respond effectively to training undertaken during the taper (variable dose-response model). Finally, it is important to note that some or all of the described physiological and psychological changes associated with the taper occur simultaneously, which underpins the integrative nature of relationships between these changes and performance enhancement.

Rock climbing and territory: symbolic processes in the appropriation of a public space

Abstratct : Today, a certain number of sports are described as « fun » or « Californien ». These sports stand in contrast to « traditional » sports in that their enthusiasts place great value on play, on the enjoyment of being with others, on fun and on shared emotions. The use of these words in reference to these sports sets them apart from the « serious » competitive sports and places them in the category of futile, shallow, marginal, even socially immature pursuits. This study, based on the ethnography of a small community of climbers that has appropriated a rock face in the south of France, shows that far from being futile, their activity is a theatre for social issues that go well beyond the limits of the sport. Thus, while on the one hand the as- pects of friendliness, sharing and play associated with rock climbing give certain climbers the feeling of belonging to a community, on the other hand the use of symbolic violence and a process of behaviour normalisation means that « others » are excluded (others being those who do not « play the game » of the local population). These phenomena are examined here since they show how, within the area of sport, tensions are played out between individuals (free and equal) and a community of belonging develops. Indeed, these phenomena call into question contemporary ways of « living together ».

Early Specialization in Youth Sport: a requirement for adult expertise?

The role of early specialization in the development of sport expertise is a point of contention among researchers. While there is consistent evidence linking quantity of training with level of proficiency attained, a focus on specialized training during early stages of development has been linked with several negative consequences. Diversified involvement in a number of sports during early stages of development has been presented as a possible alternative to early specialization. Considering the consequences of advocating the early specialization approach and research suggesting the effectiveness of early diversification, coaches and sport scientists should consider the early diversification approach as an alternative. Further research is required to expand our understanding of the relative contributions of diversified versus specialized training. The acquisition of expertise in sport is the result of complex interactions among biological, psychological, and sociological constraints (Singer & Janelle, 1999). Successful negotiation of these constraints can lead to the highest levels of perform

Sports Participation and Disordered Eating Behaviors and Beliefs of Middle School Girls

The purposes of this study were to examine and describe the disordered eating behaviors and beliefs of middle school female athletes and to determine whether a relationship exists between the number and type of sports participation and disordered eating behavior among the young athletes. Two hundred twenty-six girls in five schools completed surveys that addressed sports participation and behaviors and beliefs related to eating disorders. The students participated in a mean of 4.6 sports, and reported an average of 2.1 weight dissatisfied beliefs and restrictive or disordered eating behaviors. No relationships were found between the number of sports the girls played and their disordered beliefs and behaviors.

Investigating Interscholastic Equity on the Sports Page: A Content Analysis of High School Athletics Newspaper Articles

While research has documented the mass media’s biased coverage of sportswomen in most levels of athletic participation, no study has yet determined if under-representation and trivialization of females occur at the interscholastic level. This content analysis, in investigating the amount and type of newspaper coverage given to female and male high school athletics, sought to fill this void. Over a 1-year timeframe, 602 issues were randomly selected from 43 daily newspapers. This sample produced 1792 articles that fit the study’s codebook. The articles revealed that female athletics, even when compared to three independent standards (gender breakdowns of school enrollment, participation rates, and number of sports offered), was significantly under-represented in both number of articles and total column inches. Male athletics not only received significantly more written coverage, but its articles were also more likely to be better positioned and have photographic accompaniment than those about female athletics.

Composites win over sports market

From skis and snowboards to fly rods, golf clubs and racing bikes, composites are being used more and more to improve performance in a number of sports. Katherine Prince takes a look at how composites are changing sports equipment for the better.

The role of the mouthguard in the prevention of sports-related dental injuries: a review.

This paper examines the literature dealing with oral-facial injuries received during participation in sport and the possibilities open to athletes for their prevention. In particular, the paper examines five different aspects of this topic: the risk of dental injury while playing sports, the role of the mouthguard in preventing injury, types of athletic mouthguard, implications for patients undergoing orthodontic treatment and behavioural aspects of mouthguard wear. It is clear from this review that participation in a number of sports does carry a considerable risk of sustaining dental injury, not only in the so-called contact sports such as rugby and hockey, but also in less obviously dangerous sports such as basketball. Although some evidence exists to the contrary, the majority of studies have found the mouthguard to be the most effective way of preventing such injuries. It is also clear that the custom-fabricated mouthguard, in particular the pressure-laminated variety, is seen to afford most protection. Athletes undergoing orthodontic treatment present a particular problem as they are potentially at greater risk of injury because of increased tooth mobility and the presence of orthodontic appliances. The fabrication of mouthguards for these patients is also problematic and the literature covering this is reviewed. As with other preventive measures, mouthguard usage is often less than the dental profession would like; the reasons for this are explored in a small number of studies. While much progress has been made in this area, the profession could do much more to promote the greater use of mouthguards.

Comparison of Upper-Body Strength and Power Between Professional and College-Aged Rugby League Players

Levels of upper-body strength and power can distinguish between athletes of different levels in a number of sports. The purpose of this investigation was to compare the maximum upper-body strength and power of 22 professional National Rugby League (NRL) and 27 state- and city-league, college-aged (SRL) rugby league players. All players were from the same football club and had undergone the same preseason strength and power training program for the 8 weeks prior to testing. Maximum strength was assessed by a 1 repetition maximum bench press (1RM BP). Maximum power (Pmax) and power output with loads of 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80 kg (P40, P50, P60, P70, and P80) were assessed during BP throws using the plyometric power system (PPS). Despite no differences in body mass or height, the NRL players were significantly stronger and more powerful in every variable measured. Furthermore, the differences in power output between groups became more pronounced with increasing barbell loads. Overall strength and power were highly related (r = 0.82); however, the relationship between these variables was somewhat less in the stronger NRL group (NRL r = 0.58, SRL r = 0.85). The percentage 1RM which maximized power output was also significantly lower for the NRL group as well as for stronger subgroups within each group. The results suggest that maximum strength largely influences power output; however, once a strength plateau has been reached, the changing training emphasis toward power training or the negative effects of high-volume conditioning training may alter the extent of the relationship.

The role of hyperbaric oxygen therapy in sports medicine.

During the past decade, we have seen a growing number of individuals participating in sport and recreational activities. All indications show an increase in sport participation at every age level. However, the number of sport and recreational injuries as a result of this increase has also risen. Unfortunately, a primary cost related to injury recovery is the time lost from participating in and resuming normal functional activity. This has compelled health care professionals to seek more efficient and effective therapeutic interventions in treating such injuries. Hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) therapy may serve to provide a means of therapy to facilitate a speedier resumption to pre-injury activity levels as well as improve the short and long term prognosis of the injury. Although a growing interest in sports medicine is becoming evident in the literature, the use of HBO as an intervention in this field has received a great deal of cynicism. To date, numerous professional athletic teams, including hockey (NHL), football (NFL), basketball (NBA) and soccer (MLS), utilise and rely on the use of HBO as adjuvant therapy for numerous sports-related injuries acquired from playing competitive sports. However, to date, very little has been published on the application benefits of hyperbaric therapy and sports injuries. The majority of clinical studies examining the efficacy of HBO in treating soft tissue injuries have been limited in their sample size and study design. Further research needs to be conducted suggesting and validating the significant effects of this treatment modality and further grounding its importance in sports medicine.

Physical fitness and sports skills in relation to sports injuries. A four-year prospective investigation of sports injuries among physical education students.

In order to study the relationship between physical fitness/sport-specific skills and sports injuries 136 physical education students were studied during their 4-years of training in a prospective investigation. Physical fitness was measured every year using a battery of fitness tests, and the performance marks of a number of sports scored at the exams of the academy were used as parameters for the sport-specific skills. Sports injuries were recorded every 3 weeks on standard forms. Relative risk ratios were calculated between the tertile groups good, average and poor for all variables of physical fitness and sport-specific skills. Injury-proneness was defined for all and for acute and chronic injuries separately near the median number of injuries sustained. In only 6 out of 126 computed relative risks was a significant difference found. Discriminant analysis revealed an explanation of 16%, 14% and 11% of the variance for respectively all, acute and chronic injuries, at which 5 or 6 variables in varying combination were included. From our findings it may be concluded that physical fitness and sport-specific skills have little impact on sports injuries for the following two main reasons. Firstly, subjects at risk for sports injuries participate per definition in sports activities and have consequently developed their fitness and skills compared to the sedentary population. Thus, the range in physical fitness or sports skills in the population at risk is relatively small (physical education students belong to the 7th-10th decile in fitness test scores within a general college student population) and therefore an effect is hard to show. Secondly, the total number of sports injuries is very small and moreover, it should be distributed over several categories for analysis. The favourable advantages of using physical education students to study intrinsic risk factors (comparable and varied sports program, excellent compliance) appeared to be insufficient to compensate for drawbacks of selection.

Fluid balance during team sports

Sweat losses during team sports are influenced by the intermittent nature of the work rates (high-intensity exercise interspersed with low-level activity and both formal and informal rest periods), and a high level of inter- and intra-individual variability in workloads. Since many team sports have evolved in countries with cool climates, traditions and rules governing the time of play, duration of play without a break, and the type of uniforms may lead to inappropriately high thermal stresses when these sports are played in hot environments (i.e. > 25C, 60% relative humidity). Fluid intake during team sports is largely determined by opportunities to drink during formal rest periods and during informal stoppages in play. Present regulations concerning fluid breaks in some sports may be inappropriate if fluid requirements of players competing in hot environments are to be met to prevent hypohydration and fatigue. Nevertheless, it appears that in most team sports, there are adequate opportunities for players to keep fluid deficits below 2% of body mass. Studies across a number of sports show that mean fluid intakes of up to 1000ml h -1 can be achieved. Strategies are required to help team sport players realize the importance of optimal hydration, and to use or create opportunities within their sport to maximize fluid intake. Guidelines for hydration during training and competition are suggested with the proviso that these should be adapted for each individual and his or her own sport.

Improving Vertical Jump Performance Through General, Special, and Specific Strength Training: A Brief Review

ABSTRACTVertical jump ability is a requirement for success in a number of sports. This paper reviews three broad categories of strength training methods by which vertical jump ability is commonly improved. It examines a theoretical rationale for a strength training program by identifying the neurome

The future of performance-related sports biomechanics research.

An overview of performance-related research in sports biomechanics is presented describing the relevant techniques of data analysis and data processing together with the methods used in experimental and theoretical studies. Advances in data collection and processing techniques which are necessary for the future development of sports biomechanics research are identified. The difficulties associated with experimental studies in sports biomechanics are described with examples of the different approaches that have been used. The strengths and weaknesses of theoretical studies are discussed with examples drawn from a number of sports. It is concluded that progress in performance-related research will result from the application of a suitable combination of theoretical and experimental approaches to those sports in which technique is the primary requirement for success.