Gas Nucleation Research Articles

Regeneration of capillary water in unsaturated zones

Abstract In porous media subject to drying conditions such as arid regions and excavation zones (deep gas injection or nuclear waste disposal), capillarity is involved in weathering processes because it modifies the geochemical and poromechanical balances within the porous network. Heterogeneous porous media like sedimentary rocks can host significant volumes of tensile capillary water in large pore bodies, and the negative pressure within is controlled by capillary forces exerted at nanometric pore throats. We have developed experiments using synthetic bimodal pore systems conducive to capillary tension. In microtubes, salts precipitated in an evaporating solution to build a dual-porosity system. A large volume (o200 µm) became trapped behind nanometric pores, where high capillary tension was applied. We investigated the gas-water interactions there, especially how gas nucleated in the trapped liquid and how it subsequently changed size. After gas nucleation, the decreasing of gas volume that we observed has been attributed to two complementary geochemical effects. On the one hand, the water’s tensile state increases gas solubility, as predicted by thermodynamics: capillarity is a “gas-in” process. On the other hand, while the total volume of the gas-water assemblage remains constant, the water’s molar volume increases by capillary forces. Consequently, capillary forces exerted at the nano-throats can (re)induce a superheated monophasic liquid state from a biphasic liquid-gas assemblage even after gas nucleation. Tensions required for gas shrinkage have been estimated at 7 ± 3 MPa and 53 ± 15 MPa. This regeneration process offers opportunities for water to regularly return to a capillary state, making the capillary lifetime less limited than expected. This shows that pore heterogeneity in rocks submitted to drying processes results in tension for water in pores that is long-lived. As a consequence, capillarity may significantly impact the long-term geochemical budget through its effects on gas and solid solubility and/or poromechanics (compaction, tensile stress, fracturing, etc.), so that it may play an important role in the weathering of drying porous materials.

Observing Transient Bipolar Electrochemical Coupling on Single Nanoparticles Translocating through a Nanopore.

We report the observation of transient bipolar electrochemical coupling on freely moving 40 nm silver nanoparticles. The use of an asymmetric nanoelectrochemical environment at the nanopore orifice, for example, an acid inside the pipette and halide ions in the bulk, enabled us to observe unusually large current blockages of single Ag nanoparticles. We attribute these current blockages to the formation of H2 nanobubbles on the surface of Ag nanoparticles due to the coupled faradaic reactions, in which the reduction of protons and water is coupled to the oxidation of Ag and water under potentials higher than 1 V. The appearance of large current blockages was strongly dependent on the applied voltage and the choice of anions in the bulk solution. The correlation between large current blockages with the oxidation of Ag nanoparticles and their nanopore translocation was further supported by simultaneous fluorescence and electric recordings. This study demonstrates that transient bipolar electrochemistry can take place on small metal nanoparticles below 50 nm when they pass through nanopores where the electric field is highly localized. The use of a nanopore and the resistive-pulse sensing method to study transient bipolar electrochemistry of nanoparticles may be extended to future studies in ultrafast electrochemistry, nanocatalyst screening, and gas nucleation on nanoparticles.

Reduced weld strength due to secondary cell formation in vibration weld region of microcellular glass fiber reinforced nylon-6 shells

Microcellular plastic parts reduce weight and increase dimensional stability, but a significant decrease in weld strength is observed when the weld region reaches the cell area. In this study, 30 wt.% glass fiber reinforced nylon-6 shells with weight reductions of 0%, 7%, and 10% were fabricated by microcellular injection molding with nitrogen gas followed by vibration welding. Although the weld depth of the vibration weld was much less than the thickness of the cell-free surface layer, microstructural analysis of fracture surfaces by scanning electron microscopy and optical microscopy confirmed the presence of cells at the weld region that lowered burst pressures by 17% and 22% for shells with weight reductions of 7% and 10%, respectively, when compared with the burst pressure of 1.16 MPa for solid shells. The irregular sizes and elongated shapes of these cells suggest that they were generated in the molten polymer by secondary nucleation of residual nitrogen gas during the vibration welding process. This assumption is corroborated by the fact that no cells are formed in the weld area of solid shells with 0% weight reduction and is consistent with recently reported similar findings for glass fiber reinforced polypropylene.

Interaction of Anionic Bulk Nanobubbles with Cationic Liposomes: Evidence for Reentrant Condensation.

We investigated the interaction of bulk nanobubbles with cationic liposomes composed of 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-ethylphosphocholine and anionic liposomes assembled from 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1′-rac-glycerol). We employed dynamic light scattering and fluorescence microscopy to investigate both the hydrodynamic and electrophoretic properties of the nanobubble/liposome complexes. These optical techniques permit direct visualization of structural changes as a function of the bubble/liposome ratio. We observed reentrant condensation with cationic liposomes and gas nucleation with anionic liposomes. This is the first report of charge inversion and reentrant condensation of cationic liposomes induced by bulk nanobubbles.

Effect of the Degree of Oil Biodegradation on the Crystallization of Methane Hydrate and Ice in Water-Oil Emulsions

To study the influence exerted by oxidized oil components on the nucleation and growth of gas hydrates the nucleation of methane hydrate and ice in 50 wt % emulsions of oil in native oil and two samples of the same oil subjected to biodegradation for 30 and 60 days (samples N, V30, and V60, respectively) were examined. In the course of measurements, the samples were cooled to–15°C at a constant rate of 0.14 deg min–1 and then heated to the initial temperature. The initial methane pressure in the system was 15 MPa at 20°C. In the process, the temperatures were recorded at which heat effects corresponding to the formation of hydrate/ice and the melting of these. In the case of emulsion N, no exothermic effects were manifested in the cooling stage. In the heating stage, the endothermic effects of ice melting were found in half of the samples. No effects corresponding to the decomposition of the hydrate were observed. In experiment with V30 samples, the formation of the hydrate and ice was manifested as strong exothermic effects. Ice was formed in all the experiments, and the hydrate, only in 21% of the samples. Finally, in experiments with V60, ice and the hydrate were formed in 54 and 13% of cases, respectively. Their formation was manifested as weak exothermic effects in the cooling stage. Thus, it was demonstrated that the biodegradation level of oil samples affects the nucleation of methane hydrate and ice in emulsions formed on the basis of these samples.

(Invited) Large Scale PEM Electrolysis Stack Development - the Megastack Project

In the MEGASTACK project, the existing PEM electrolyser stack designs of ITM power has been scaled up and combined with novel solutions to successfully achieve a MW-sized PEM stack design. Two-phase flow and structural mechanics modelling approach has been applied together with optimization of stack components such as MEAs, bipolar plates, current collectors and sealings. The development activities have focused on existing solutions, already proven in kW-sized electrolyser stacks, rather than aiming to use completely new, unproven concepts and materials. The two-phase flow model is based on the volume of fluid (VOF) model in ANSYS/Fluent 16.2 and implements sub-grid scale models for water electrolysis as a set of user-defined functions. These sub-grid scale models include, gas nucleation, gas-liquid mass transfer and bubble coalescence and breakup phenomena on subgrid length scales. Experiments using a transparent cell in combination with a high-speed digital camera as well as numerical image processing was used to quantify temporal and spatial gas distribution and flow velocities. The experimental results are compared to the two-phase flow model results and the validity and implications of the model are discussed. It is clear from both the modelling work and experimental results, that inlet and outlet manifolds, as well as the flow resulting from specific choices for current collector greatly impacts the water distribution of the electrolyser stack and therefore also on the gas distribution within the cell. The LCA compares in a life cycle (cradle-to-gate- plus use phase-) perspective the environmental aspects of the two design options by following practice guidance and required provisions developed by the FCH JU – a method that complies with the ISO 14040 and 14044 series. Results derived from the comparative LCA point towards an improved environmental performance of the new stack design demonstrated in the MEGASTACK project for all midpoint impact categories investigated in this study, i.e. for the abiotic depletion potential (ADP), global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential (AP), and eutrophication potential (EP). The lower environmental impacts resulting from the new stack design are linked to both increased current density that reduces the quantity of active materials required for a given hydrogen production capacity, and the reduction of material requirements through the improved stack design. Summary The FCH-JU project MEGASTACK has developed a PEM electrolyser stack design for MW-sized water electrolysers with the goal of significantly reducing the cost of large scale PEM electrolysers. This presentation will give a summary of the main achievements and results from the MEGASTACK project as well as a more detailed presentation of the results from two phase flow modelling of the liquid and gas transport in the anode flow field and results from a comparative life cycle analysis of the new stack.

Combining textural and geochemical investigations to explore the dynamics of magma ascent during Plinian eruptions: a Somma–Vesuvius volcano (Italy) case study

Trigger mechanisms and syn-eruptive processes of Plinian eruptions are poorly understood especially in the case of mafic powerful events. In the last decades, the combined geochemical and textural studies on volcanic rocks have proven to be fundamental tools for exploring the dynamics of magma ascent in volcanic conduits and for improving our ability to interpret volcano-monitoring signals and assess hazard. In this case study, we quantitatively investigate 2D and 3D micro-textural, geochemical, and isotopic features of pyroclastic rocks erupted during the Pomici di Base Plinian eruption (22 ka), the generally acknowledged first and most powerful event of the Somma–Vesuvius volcano. A peculiar aspect of this eruption is its high intensity that remained stable during the entire Plinian phase despite the strong magma compositional variation towards mafic terms. We infer that the transfer of magma towards the surface was intensified by the occurrence of rapid vesiculation pulses driven by limestone assimilation (skarn recycling) during magma ascent through the carbonatic bedrock. We conclude that limestone assimilation can hence be a syn-eruptive process, able to trigger further gas nucleation with deep impact on the eruption intensity, particularly crucial in the case of mafic/intermediate magma compositions.

Nucleation rates of droplets in supersaturated steam and water vapour–carrier gas mixtures between 200 and 450 K

We compare experimental nucleation rates for water vapour in various carrier gases, estimated nucleation rates for steam, and nucleation rates obtained from molecular simulations. The data for steam are deduced from empirical adjustments of the classical nucleation theory developed by various authors to reproduce pressure and optical data for condensing steam flows in converging-diverging nozzles and turbine stages. By combining the data for nucleation in carrier gases and the data for steam nucleation, an unprecedented temperature range of 250 K is available to study the temperature dependence of nucleation rate. Original results of molecular dynamic simulations for TIP4P/2005 force field in the NVE (system constrained by number of particles, volume and energy) conditions are provided. Correction of classical nucleation theory for non-isothermal nucleation conditions is applied to experimental and simulated data. The nucleation rate data for steam follow a similar temperature trend as the nucleation rate data for water vapour in carrier gases at lower temperatures. The ratio of observed nucleation rates to classical nucleation theory predictions decreases more steeply with temperature than the empirical correlation by Wölk et al. ( J Chem Phys 2002; 117: 4954–4960). On the contrary to experimental data, the ratios of nucleation rates computed from molecular simulations to classical nucleation theory predictions do not show a significant temperature trend.

Critical Nuclei Size, Rate, and Activation Energy of H2 Gas Nucleation.

Electrochemical measurements of the nucleation rate of individual H2 bubbles at the surface of Pt nanoelectrodes (radius = 7-41 nm) are used to determine the critical size and geometry of H2 nuclei leading to stable bubbles. Precise knowledge of the H2 concentration at the electrode surface, CH2surf, is obtained by controlled current reduction of H+ in a H2SO4 solution. Induction times of single-bubble nucleation events are measured by stepping the current, to control CH2surf, while monitoring the voltage. We find that gas nucleation follows a first-order rate process; a bubble spontaneously nucleates after a stochastic time delay, as indicated by a sudden voltage spike that results from impeded transport of H+ to the electrode. Hundreds of individual induction times, at different applied currents and using different Pt nanoelectrodes, are used to characterize the kinetics of phase nucleation. The rate of bubble nucleation increases by four orders of magnitude (0.3-2000 s-1) over a very small relative change in CH2surf (0.21-0.26 M, corresponding to a ∼0.025 V increase in driving force). Classical nucleation theory yields thermodynamic radii of curvature for critical nuclei of 4.4 to 5.3 nm, corresponding to internal pressures of 330 to 270 atm, and activation energies for nuclei formation of 14 to 26 kT, respectively. The dependence of nucleation rate on H2 concentration indicates that nucleation occurs by a heterogeneous mechanism, where the nuclei have a contact angle of ∼150° with the electrode surface and contain between 35 and 55 H2 molecules.

Continuous manufacture of polymeric cellular dosage forms

The most prevalent pharmaceutical dosage forms at present are granular solids in the form of oral tablets and capsules. While effective in releasing drug rapidly upon contact with gastrointestinal fluid, their manufacture, which relies on particulate processing, is fraught with difficulties associated with the unpredictable inter-particle interactions. Such difficulties, however, could be easily overcome by transitioning to a liquid-based process. Therefore, we have recently introduced melt‐processed polymeric cellular dosage forms. The drug release behavior of the cellular forms was tailored by altering the microstructure; yet their preparation relied on an inefficient batch method comprising gas dissolution, and nucleation and growth of microscopic gas bubbles in the melt. In this study, therefore, we present a continuous microfluidic melt extrusion and molding process. The cellular dosage forms are produced by injecting gas bubbles directly into the melt stream in a micro‐ or milli-fluidic channel, followed by molding and solidification of the cellular structure. A model is developed to illustrate the effects of the width, frequency, and pressure of the gas injection pulses, and the flow rate and viscosity of the melt, on the microstructural parameters of the dosage forms produced. Experimental results show that the size and volume fraction of gas-filled cells (or voids) are predictable. They also confirm that the dosage form disintegration rate and density can be tailored by altering the volume fraction of voids. It is thus demonstrated that polymeric cellular dosage forms with predictable drug release properties, and density, can be readily manufactured by a continuous process.

Kinetic Monte Carlo Simulations of Helium Cluster Nucleation in Tungsten with Preexisting Vacancies

The object kinetic Monte Carlo code Kinetic Simulations Of Microstructure Evolution (KSOME) was used to study the subsurface helium clustering behavior in tungsten as a function of temperature, helium implantation rate, and vacancy concentration. The simulations evaluated helium implantation fluxes from 1022 to 1026 m−2 · s−1 at temperatures from 473 to 1473 K for 100-eV helium ions implanted below tungsten surfaces and for vacancy concentrations between 1 and 50 parts per million. Such vacancy concentrations far exceed thermodynamic equilibrium values but are consistent with supersaturated concentrations expected during concurrent, or preexisting, neutron irradiation. The thermodynamics and kinetic parameters to describe helium diffusion and clustering are input to KSOME based on values obtained from atomistic simulation results. These kinetic Monte Carlo results clearly delineate two different regimes of helium cluster nucleation, one dominated by helium self-trapping at high implantation rates and lower temperatures and one where helium–vacancy trapping dominates the helium cluster nucleation at lower implantation rates and higher temperatures. The transition between these regimes has been mapped as a function of implantation rate, temperature, and vacancy concentration and can provide guidance to understand the conditions under which neutron irradiation effects may contribute to subsurface gas nucleation in tungsten plasma-facing components.

Focus Article: Theoretical aspects of vapor/gas nucleation at structured surfaces.

Heterogeneous nucleation is the preferential means of formation of a new phase. Gas and vapor nucleation in fluids under confinement or at textured surfaces is central for many phenomena of technological relevance, such as bubble release, cavitation, and biological growth. Understanding and developing quantitative models for nucleation is the key to control how bubbles are formed and to exploit them in technological applications. An example is the in silico design of textured surfaces or particles with tailored nucleation properties. However, despite the fact that gas/vapor nucleation has been investigated for more than one century, many aspects still remain unclear and a quantitative theory is still lacking; this is especially true for heterogeneous systems with nanoscale corrugations, for which experiments are difficult. The objective of this focus article is analyzing the main results of the last 10-20 years in the field, selecting few representative works out of this impressive body of the literature, and highlighting the open theoretical questions. We start by introducing classical theories of nucleation in homogeneous and in simple heterogeneous systems and then discuss their extension to complex heterogeneous cases. Then we describe results from recent theories and computer simulations aimed at overcoming the limitations of the simpler theories by considering explicitly the diffuse nature of the interfaces, atomistic, kinetic, and inertial effects.

Effect of Ultrasound on Heterogeneous Nucleation in TIG Welding of Al–Li Alloy

The effect of ultrasound on heterogeneous nucleation in a tungsten inert gas (TIG) weld pool of 2195 Al–Li alloy has been investigated by a series of experiments. An ultrasonic vibration was imposed on the surface of base material before turning off the welding arc during the TIG welding implemented at a fixed point. The results suggest that ultrasound could promote heterogeneous nucleation in the TIG weld pool of 2195 Al–Li alloy. The grain around the fusion zone is changed from a column grain to an equiaxed grain after applying the ultrasonic treatment. To study the influencing mechanism of ultrasound on heterogeneous nucleation, further investigations were implemented where the welding arc was turned off after turning off the ultrasonic power. The results show that the equiaxed grain around the fusion zone disappeared gradually with an increase in heat input after turning off the ultrasonic power. It suggests that ultrasound could promote the heterogeneous nucleation particle to nucleate in advance before turning off the welding arc and the crystal nucleus could again be melted with an increase in heat input after turning off the ultrasonic power. Moreover, the effects of the welding current and ultrasonic amplitude on heterogeneous nucleation in the weld pool of 2195 Al–Li alloy were also investigated. Possible influencing mechanism of the welding current and ultrasonic amplitude on heterogeneous nucleation was discussed.

Nucleation and droplet growth from supersaturated vapor at temperatures below the triple point temperature.

In 1897 Ostwald formulated his step rule for formation of the most stable crystal state for a system with crystal polymorphism. The rule describes the irreversible way a system converts to the crystal with lowest free energy. But in fact the irreversible way a supercooled gas below the triple point temperature Ttr.p. crystallizes via a liquid droplet is an example of Ostwald's step rule. The homogeneous nucleation in the supersaturated gas is not to a crystal, but to a liquid-like critical nucleus. We have for the first time performed constant energy (NVE) Molecular Dynamics (MD) of homogeneous nucleation without the use of a thermostat. The simulations of homogeneous nucleation in a Lennard-Jones system from supersaturated vapor at temperatures below Ttr.p. reveal that the nucleation to a liquid-like critical nucleus is initiated by a small cold cluster [S. Toxvaerd, J. Chem. Phys. 143, 154705 (2015)]. The release of latent heat at the subsequent droplet growth increases the temperature in the liquid-like droplet, which for not deep supercooling and/or low supersaturation, can exceed Ttr.p.. The temperature of the liquid-like droplet increases less for a low supersaturation and remains below Ttr.p., but without a crystallization of the droplet for long times. The dissipation of the latent heat into the surrounding gas is affected by a traditional MD thermostat, with the consequence that droplet growth is different for (NVE) MD and constant temperature (NVT) MD.

The nucleation of gas hydrates near silica surfaces

Understanding the nucleation and crystal growth of gas hydrates near mineral surfaces and in confinement are critical to the methane recovery from gas hydrate reservoirs. In this work, through molecular dynamics simulation studies, we present an exploration of the nucleation behavior of methane hydrates near model hydroxylated silica surfaces. Our simulation results indicate that the nucleation of methane hydrates can initiate from the silica surfaces despite of the structural mismatch of the two solid phases. A layer of intermediate half-cage structures was observed between the gas hydrate and silica surfaces, apparently helping to minimize the free energy penalty. These results have important implications to our understanding of the effects of solid surfaces on hydrate nucleation processes.

(Invited) Tailoring Polymer Structure and Composition for High-Power and High-Charge Capacity Redox Electrodes

Conventional batteries are efficient at delivering a continuous supply of power; however, limited discharge rates prevent their use in high power applications. Many energy systems require sources that can repetitively supply high power bursts, which include electric transportation, utilization of renewable energy sources, and portable electronics. This demand can be addressed using advanced Li-ion batteries and supercapacitors, devices that combine the high power, rapid switching, and exceptional cycle life of a capacitor with the high energy density of a battery. Electroactive conducting polymers are suitable candidates for high-power energy storage, but they are currently limited by i) the lack of nano/micro-structure control over large areas, ii) relatively low charge-capacity, and iii) material stability. In this presentation, we will discuss our group’s recent progress on engineering high-energy and high-power electrode materials for energy storage, including scalable synthesis of nano/micro-structured polymer electrodes and integrating high-charge capacity redox polymers. To increase power, redox polymer microtubes with nanometer thickness are synthesized on large area substrates by controlling gas nucleation density, which guides to formation of nanostructured electrodes. Nanostructured electrodes exhibit superior performance at high charge/discharge rates relative to planar electrodes. To increase electrode charge capacity, redox molecules and polymer are incorporated into conducting polymer electrodes during electrochemical synthesis. The capacitance of polypyrrole electrodes can be increased from 249 F/g to 550 F/g using hydroquinone dopants, and up to 400 F/g using naturally abundant Alkali lignin. We show that the conditions for electrode synthesis, along with the type (and molecular composition) of lignin, exhibit strong correlations with electrode performance.

Studying bubble–particle interactions by zeta potential distribution analysis

Over a decade ago, Xu and Masliyah pioneered an approach to characterize the interactions between particles in dynamic environments of multicomponent systems by measuring zeta potential distributions of individual components and their mixtures. Using a Zetaphoremeter, the measured zeta potential distributions of individual components and their mixtures were used to determine the conditions of preferential attachment in multicomponent particle suspensions. The technique has been applied to study the attachment of nano-sized silica and alumina particles to sub-micron size bubbles in solutions with and without the addition of surface active agents (SDS, DAH and DF250). The degree of attachment between gas bubbles and particles is shown to be a function of the interaction energy governed by the dispersion, electrostatic double layer and hydrophobic forces. Under certain chemical conditions, the attachment of nano-particles to sub-micron size bubbles is shown to be enhanced by in-situ gas nucleation induced by hydrodynamic cavitation for the weakly interacting systems, where mixing of the two individual components results in negligible attachment. Preferential interaction in complex tertiary particle systems demonstrated strong attachment between micron-sized alumina and gas bubbles, with little attachment between micron-sized alumina and silica, possibly due to instability of the aggregates in the shear flow environment.

Non-equilibrium condensation process of water vapor in moist air expansion through a sonic nozzle

Non-equilibrium vapor condensation phenomenon through a sonic nozzle is very complicated and closely related to the flow measurement of the sonic nozzle. The gas–liquid two-phase flow Eulerian models for homogeneous and heterogeneous nucleation of moist gas in transonic nozzle flow were built to investigate the effect of vapor condensation on the mass flow rate of the sonic nozzle. Grid independence was achieved by using a solution-adaptive refinement. The CFD models were carefully validated by published experimental data and analytical results. It was shown that the flow rate of the sonic nozzle is affected by both homogeneous and heterogeneous nucleation. In comparison with the experimental data, the effects of vapor condensation on the mass flow rate of the sonic nozzle were obtained. Besides, experiments on periodic, unsteady condensation flow in the sonic nozzle were also reported. This unsteady flow will also affect the flow rate of the sonic nozzle. The results of experiments accorded well with simulations and semi-empirical formula. All the results can be used to further analyze the effect of unsteady flow induced by vapor condensation on the flow rate of the sonic nozzle.

Analysis of the influence of the gas velocity, particle size and nucleation temperature on the thermal history and microstructure development in the tool steel during atomization

The paper deals with the analysis of the influence of the nitrogen gas velocity, particle size and nucleation temperature on the microstructure development in the tool steel of ledeburite type Ch12MF4 in the process of atomization. Three main types of solidification microstructures were identified using microscopic analysis in rapidly solidified powder particles: dendritic, cellular (grain-refined) and compound, representing the mixture of dendritic and cellular microstructures. It can be supposed that the transition from initially dendritic to compound and cellular or grain-refined microstructure occurs by the mechanism of thermally induced fragmentation of dendrites during quasi-isothermal period of solidification if additionally the recalescence temperature is sufficiently high. The microstructures documented the procedure of dendrites fragmentation and following spheroidization of dendrite fragments in rapidly solidified powder particles from the Ch12MF4 alloy are presented.Applying developed mathematical model of cooling and solidification of a single spherical droplet in atomization process, the influence of nitrogen gas velocity and other parameters as nucleation temperature on the thermal history of a droplet with various diameters during atomization is studied. Based on the comparison of results of mathematical modeling and microstructural observations, the thermophysical conditions for the transition from dendritic to cellular (grain-refined) microstructure development in the rapidly solidified powder particles from the Ch12MF4 steel are predicted.

Quantifying the Soda Geyser

Although the science behind the soda geyser demonstration is well known, describing the microscopic origins of this dramatic, sticky demonstration can be difficult. In this experiment, an apparatus was designed to contain the reaction, thereby allowing for quantitative analysis of the amount of CO2 released after dropping in various initiating objects. The exploratory studies were tested with a moderate sized group of 12–17 year old participants at a summer learning event, and their data confirmed that the difference in the surface area of the initiators was a primary factor for the release of dissolved gas. Additional studies were performed to relate the soda temperature to the amount of dissolved CO2. In this laboratory experiment, students gained a greater understanding of surface area and its effect on gas nucleation and bubble formation as well as gas solubility its temperature dependence. The experimental approach provided a dramatic yet contained format for students to form and test their own hypotheses about the chemical processes behind this popular classroom demonstration.