The impact of COVID-19 non-pharmaceutical interventions on notifiable infectious diseases in Poland: a comprehensive analysis from 2014-2022.

Objective: This study aimed to analyze the epidemiologic trends of common nationally notifiable infectious diseases (NID) among children at a single center in Beijing from 2016 to 2024. Methods: A cross-sectional study. Demographic and clinical data were retrospectively collected from 156 006 pediatric patients diagnosed with NID and reported to the National Health Information Disease Prevention and Control Information System at the outpatient or inpatient departments of Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, between January 2016 and December 2024. The study period was divided into 3 groups based on the implementation status of non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPI) associated with the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic: pre-NPI implementation (2016-2019), during NPI implementation (2020-2022), and post-NPI lifting (2023-2024). Between-group comparisons were conducted using the χ² test and the Kruskal-Wallis rank-sum test. Results: Among the 156 006 pediatric cases included in the analysis, 89 202 were male and 66 804 were female. The age was 4.8 (2.7, 7.2) years. No category A infectious diseases were reported. Category B infectious diseases accounted for 12 734 cases (8.2%), while category C infectious diseases accounted for 135 187 cases (86.7%). Following the implementation of NPI, the average annual number of reported cases decreased by 67.6% (1 036/1 532) for category B infectious diseases and by 48.7% (5 613/11 520) for category C infectious diseases. At the transmission route level, diseases transmitted via the fecal-oral route decreased by 79.7% (5 225/6 556), while airborne transmission diseases decreased by 27.0% (2 096/7 753). Before the implementation of the NPI, 57 352 cases were reported, with hand-foot-mouth disease (HFMD) accounting for 22 213 cases (38.7%), influenza for 19 680 cases (34.3%), and varicella for 5 134 cases (9.0%). During the NPI implementation period, 21 036 cases were reported; the three most common diseases were influenza 13 292 cases (63.2%), HFMD 2 006 cases (9.5%), and varicella 1 815 cases (8.6%). After the lifting of NPI, 77 618 cases were reported, among which influenza 64 871 cases (83.6%), HFMD 5 004 cases (6.4%) and SARS-CoV-2 infection 2 191 cases (2.8%). After the lifting of NPI, the age at onset for HFMD, varicella, scarlet fever, other infectious diarrheal diseases, and pertussis was significantly higher than that observed before NPI implementation (all P<0.001). Conclusion: The shifting spectrum of pediatric NID and age of susceptible populations highlight the importance of the need for sustained surveillance to guide prevention strategies and adjust public health preparedness.

BackgroundCurrently, the world has entered the post-COVID-19 era. Since January 8, 2023, China has implemented the “Class B infectious disease Class B management” policy, which is a major shift in China’s epidemic prevention and control measures. It is imperative to assess whether the policy will have an impact on the spread of other notifiable infectious diseases in China.MethodsThe “Class B infectious disease Class B management” policy is regarded as an intervention. We extracted monthly data on cases and deaths of the 39 notifiable infectious diseases (nine diseases are transmitted through contact, twelve through air, seven through water and food, seven through insect, and four through blood and sex) between December 2019 and May 2024 from the National Disease Control and Prevention Administration of the People’s Republic of China. Based on an interrupted time series design, we applied quasi-Poisson regression models to examine the immediate and sustained effects of the intervention on the number of cases and deaths of the 39 notifiable infectious diseases in China.ResultsDuring the intervention period from January 2023 to May 2024, the total number of cases and deaths of the 39 notifiable infectious diseases increased by 230.69% and 14.20% respectively compared to the same period had no intervention been implemented. Surprisingly, the number of dengue fever cases increased tremendously by 12,495.57%, while the number of cases of brucellosis and the number of deaths from tuberculosis and infectious diarrhea decreased rather than increased. We found a significant immediate increase in the total number of cases and deaths of the 39 notifiable infectious diseases and the number of cases of airborne and insect-borne infectious diseases at the beginning of the policy. In the long run, the policy had a significant positive sustained effect on the number of cases of blood-borne and sexual infectious diseases and a significant negative sustained effect on the number of deaths from tuberculosis.ConclusionsIf China or other regions relax their prevention and control measures against coronavirus infectious diseases similar to SARS in the future, health authorities should, on the one hand, remain vigilant immediately to prevent a sudden increase in the number of cases of airborne and insect-borne infectious diseases, and on the other hand, maintain long term close monitoring of the trend of cases of blood-borne and sexual infectious diseases. This is crucial for the sustainable control of notifiable infectious diseases and the maintenance of social stability. Furthermore, when evaluating the effectiveness of policies (interventions) in the future, it is recommended to adopt an interrupted time series design.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-025-26118-1.

Reported Cases and Deaths of National Notifiable Infectious Diseases - China, November 2025.

Abstract This study aims to estimate the parameters of a stochastic exposed–infected–removed epidemiological model for the transmission dynamics of notifiable infectious diseases. It is motivated by a data set of typhoid fever in Mayotte. The main originality and difficulty comes from the observation scheme: the only data available are periodic cumulated new retired counts. We first study the complete model to derive an analytic expression of the unknown parameters (contamination rates, incubation rate, isolation rate) as functions of some moments or some well-chosen transition probabilities. We then use the setting of hidden multi-chain Markov models and adapt the standard Baum–Welch algorithm in order to estimate the transition matrix in our hidden data framework and retrieve the parameters of interest. The performance of this approach is investigated using synthetic data, along with an analysis of the impact of employing a model with one fewer compartment to fit the data, aiding in model selection. Then, it is applied to the typhoid data set.

Objective: To understand the incidence and epidemic characteristics of notifiable infectious diseases in Shiqiu Street, Lishui District, Nanjing City, and to provide scientific basis for formulating infectious disease prevention and control strategies. Methods:&amp;nbsp;The reporting data of notifiable infectious diseases in Shiqiu Street, Lishui District, Nanjing City from 2019 to 2024 were obtained from the information system of the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, and descriptive epidemiological methods were used to analyze the incidence profile of infectious diseases and the distribution characteristics of the three districts. Results:&amp;nbsp;A total of 1,444 cases of 11 notifiable infectious diseases were reported from 2019 to 2024. There were no reports of Class A notifiable infectious diseases. The average annual reported incidence rate was 467.01/100,000. The reported incidence rate generally showed a fluctuating upward trend. The top five diseases with the highest annual reported incidence rates are hand, foot and mouth disease, novel coronavirus infection, influenza, tuberculosis, and viral hepatitis. The order of the average annual incidence rates of infectious diseases by different transmission routes is respiratory infectious diseases &gt; intestinal infectious diseases &gt; blood-borne and sexually transmitted infectious diseases. The male-to-female sex ratio is 1.47:1; the disease occurs in all age groups, with the highest number of reported cases in the 0 to 9-year-old group, accounting for 39.4%; the affected people are mainly farmers, scattered children, and students. Conclusion: The situation of infectious disease prevention and control in Shiqiu Street, Lishui District is still severe. Comprehensive prevention and control measures should be adopted to strengthen the prevention and control of key groups and key infectious diseases.

The epidemiological characteristics of notifiable infectious diseases in a Yunnan hospital, China, 2014–2023

Nonpharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) have positive effects on curbing the COVID-19 pandemic, but the spread of other infectious diseases remains unknown. This study aimed to explore the incidence of notifiable infectious diseases (NIDs) at different stages of the COVID-19 pandemic in Mainland China. We extracted monthly cases of NIDs from the National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China from January 2020 to December 2023. The infections were classified as blood-borne/sexually transmitted diseases, intestinal diseases, zoonotic/insect-borne diseases and respiratory diseases. The Joinpoint regression model was used to quantify the temporal trends of NIDs by calculating annual percentage changes (APCs). There is a negative correlation between the national ridership of urban rail transit and the national COVID-19 cases. During the two emergency response periods from January 2020 to March 2020 and November 2022 to January 2023, 1,760,990 cases and 804,266 cases of 22 types of NIDs were reported nationwide, which decreased by 25.54% and 74.64% respectively compared with the same period in 2019. For different NIDs, respiratory diseases had the greatest reduction (85.99%), followed by intestinal diseases (48.94%), zoonotic/insect-borne diseases (34.22%), and blood-borne/sexually transmitted diseases (33.30%). It was found that strict containment measures decreased social mobility and reduced the number of most NID cases. However, with the weakening of NPIs, hand, foot, and mouth disease, epidemic hemorrhagic fever, influenza and pertussis cases notably increased. This study offers suggestions for preventing the spread of epidemics in extreme situations.

Self-reported knowledge, attitudes and concerns about zoonoses among general practitioners in the Netherlands.

Although prenatal exposure to famine is known to increase the risk of various noncommunicable conditions, its effects on infectious diseases remain poorly understood. We examined the effect of prenatal exposure to the Great Chinese Famine on risks for 11 notifiable infectious diseases in two consecutive generations through the analysis of >4.4 million surveillance records in Sichuan Province, China. Using an approach combining cohort models with counterfactual effect imputation, we estimated the ratio of observed to expected incidence rates (incidence rate ratio, IRR) in the absence of famine among both the directly affected birth cohort (F1) and their possible offspring (F2). We further examined whether there was a dose-response relationship between famine severity and infectious disease outcomes using meta-regression at the prefecture level. We found that the risk of acquiring any of the 11 infectious diseases studied increased significantly among both the F1 (IRR: 1.13, 95% CI: 1.04 to 1.21) and the F2 cohort (IRR: 1.08, 95% CI: 1.00 to 1.15). IRRs for the F1 generation were higher in prefectures that experienced more severe famine, with one interquartile range increase in famine severity associated with a 3.95% (95% CI: 1.87 to 6.05%) increase in F1 IRR. Positive associations of varying magnitudes were estimated between increased risks in the F1 cohort and famine intensity for most individual diseases. Prenatal exposure to famine may have long-term and potential intergenerational impacts on the risk of a broad range of infectious diseases. Ensuring adequate prenatal nutrition may be crucial in reducing the burden of infectious diseases across generations.

BackgroundNotifiable infectious diseases remain a public health priority in China. Understanding long-term epidemiological patterns and developing low-cost, automated forecasting tools may support timely prevention efforts at the county level.MethodsWe analyzed 26,756 valid cases of 29 statutory infectious diseases reported in Ziyang County (2013–2023). Diseases with ≥ 500 cumulative cases were selected for primary analysis. Seasonal autoregressive integrated moving average (SARIMA) models were fitted for tuberculosis (TB), influenza, and hand–foot–mouth disease (HFMD), with two training windows (2013–2021 and 2018–2021) used for influenza to account for surveillance updates. Model selection was based on the Akaike information criterion, and forecasts were validated using data from 2022–2023.ResultsTB, influenza, and HFMD accounted for more than 55% of the cases. The TB incidence steadily decreased, with spring–summer peaks, whereas the incidence of influenza increased after 2019 and peaked in the winter. Short-horizon forecasts were robust across training windows but less accurate in 2022–2023, likely reflecting post-COVID-19 behavioral and policy shifts. HFMD forecasts were unstable because of zero-inflated data.ConclusionsThe incidence of tuberculosis decreased consistently, whereas the incidence of influenza rebounded sharply after nonpharmaceutical interventions were lifted. The SARIMA models reproduced seasonal patterns but showed limited accuracy for influenza and HFMD, reflecting the influence of surveillance changes, behavioral shifts, and sparse data. These findings highlight the need for complementary approaches—such as models explicitly accounting for structural breaks—to improve the reliability of local infectious disease forecasts.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-025-25482-2.

ObjectivesTo analyze data collected through the National Infectious Disease Surveillance System to provide information on infectious disease outbreaks and deaths for use in infectious disease prevention and management.MethodsOn June 26, 2025, the status of infectious disease outbreaks and deaths reported in 2024 was analyzed and announced, based on the reporting scope and criteria for each statutory infectious disease.ResultsIn 2024, 40 of 66 infectious diseases under surveillance were reported, whereas 26 remained unreported. The number of reported infectious diseases under surveillance is 171,376, a significant decrease from 5,626,627 in 2023. However, excluding coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and syphilis, which had fluctuations in infectious disease levels between 2023 and 2024, the number increased by 54.5% from 109,087 in 2023 to 168,586 in 2024. The major infectious diseases that showed an increase were pertussis, scarlet fever, chickenpox, and Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE) infections, and those that decreased were mumps, tuberculosis, hepatitis C, and hepatitis A. Reported imported infectious diseases in 2024 totaled 606, including dengue fever, primary syphilis, malaria, chickenpox, and hepatitis C. The number of deaths reported in 2024 was 1,238, excluding tuberculosis, which is an 18.2% increase compared to that of 2023, when excluding COVID-19 deaths 2023; with the major infectious diseases being CRE, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, and pneumococcal infection.ConclusionsThe statutory infectious disease surveillance system can be used to produce basic data and develop policies for infectious disease prevention and management.

An R Package for Acquiring and Processing Notifiable Infectious Diseases Dataset from the Japan Institute for Health Security

Pathogenesis on dysregulated blood glucose homeostasis in severe hand-foot-mouth disease mouse model

Epidemiological analysis of infectious diseases in older people in China from 2014 to 2022: a population-based study

To investigate the epidemiological characteristics and effectiveness of emergency responses to epidemic foci in Guangzhou City in 2024, so as to optimization of the dengue fever control strategy in Guangzhou City. All data pertaining to dengue fever cases in Guangzhou City in 2024 were collected from the National Notifiable Infectious Disease Surveillance Information Reporting System. The temporal, spatial and population distributions of dengue fever cases and sources of infections were descriptively analyzed, and the effectiveness of emergency responses to epidemic foci of dengue fever was evaluated through standard space index (SSI), the interval from disease onset to case reporting and the percentage of isolation in hospital. A total of 3 656 dengue fever cases were reported in Guangzhou City in 2024, including 3 102 local cases and 554 imported cases. Of all cases, 67.86% (2 481 cases) occurred at ages of 20 to 59 years, and the three most common occupations included housework/unemployment (793 cases, 21.69%), business servants (744 cases, 20.35%) and retirees (669 cases, 18.30%). The peak of dengue fever epidemics was concentrated during the period from the 39th to the 45th weeks in 2024, when a total of 2 317 local cases were reported, accounting for 74.69% of all local cases in 2024. Dengue fever cases were reported across all 11 districts in Guangzhou City in 2024, with local cases concentrated in Baiyun District (754 cases, 24.31%), Liwan District (398 cases, 12.83%), Panyu District (365 cases, 11.77%), Haizhu District (332 cases, 10.70%) and Tianhe District (328 cases, 10.57%). Imported dengue fever cases were predominantly domestically imported (492 cases, 88.81%), with the majority imported from Foshan City (377 cases), and overseas imported cases were predominantly imported from southeastern Asian countries. The mean proportion of case isolation in hospital was 9.16% (284/3 102), and the mean interval from disease onset to case reporting was (3.99 ± 2.70) days, while the percentages of mosquito density meeting the required standard were 61.68% (462/ 749) and 66.32% (126/190) on the 4th and 7th day of emergency responses to epidemic foci, respectively. The prevention and control cycle of dengue fever in Guangzhou in 2024 took longer than in previous years, with a larger scale of the epidemic. Although some progress has been made in epidemic management, there are still problems such as unsustainable mosquito vector control and low hospitalization isolation rates for cases. Further optimization of control measures in mosquito vector control, case monitoring and management is required to improve the effectiveness of dengue fever control measures.

Background and aimThe Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has notably affected pediatric health, especially regarding notifiable infectious diseases. While strict control measures reduced infection transmission, they also lowered herd immunity, possibly causing a rise in pediatric infectious disease cases once restrictions were eased. The aim of the study is to compare the number of pediatric outpatient and emergency visits and the incidence rates of notifiable infectious diseases from 2020 to 2023.MethodsWe retrospectively analyzed pediatric department visit cases from 2020 to 2023 and compared variations in the number and proportion of notifiable infectious diseases across different years.ResultsOur findings revealed a sharp increase in pediatric visits, from 31,401 before the pandemic to 89,945 in 2023, representing an approximate threefold increase. Notifiable infectious disease cases rose from 224 in 2020 to 1027 in 2023, marking an increase of nearly 4.6 times. The incidence of influenza, hand-foot-mouth disease (HFMD), and infectious diarrhea also markedly increased.ConclusionsThese findings establish a significant association between the relaxation of COVID-19 restrictions and increased pediatric infectious disease occurrence. In 2023, there has been a substantial increase in the number of pediatric outpatient and emergency department visits, as well as in the incidence rate of notifiable infectious diseases, when compared to the period from 2020 to 2022. Notably, the incidence of influenza has exhibited the most pronounced increase, while the incidence rates of measles and mumps have remained stable.

ABSTRACT Chlamydia pneumoniae (C. pneumoniae) remains an underrecognized cause of respiratory infections in China. As C. pneumoniae-associated pneumonia has not been classified as a notifiable infectious disease, nationwide surveillance data are unavailable, resulting in poorly characterized epidemiological patterns. Using targeted next-generation sequencing (tNGS) data from 2,316,182 hospitalized acute respiratory infection (ARI) cases across 315 cities in 31 provinces of mainland China, we characterized the seasonal epidemiology and demographic patterns of C. pneumoniae infections. Our analyses revealed a 4.3-fold increase in C. pneumoniae positivity rates in 2024; from 0.21% in 2022–2023 to 0.90% in 2024, with distinct geographic clustering in the southwestern regions of the Yangtze River Basin. Seasonal analysis identified the period from April to June as the peak season for C. pneumoniae infections. Demographic stratifications showed male adolescents aged 10–19 years emerged as the highest-risk population, while women aged 25–44 years also showed elevated infection risks likely due to caregiving roles. Our findings demonstrate the changes in the epidemiology of C. pneumoniae in post-pandemic China and underscore the necessity of enhancing surveillance of C. pneumoniae infections and implementing targeted prevention strategies, particularly in high-burden areas and high-risk populations such as adolescents/caregivers in southwestern regions of the Yangtze River Basin.

Abstract Background Reporting of notifiable infectious diseases was overall impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. This could affect disease surveillance and thus outbreak detection. In this study, we take the first steps in the development of a methodology that adjusts for the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the number of notification of notifiable infectious diseases and provides corrected alarm thresholds for outbreak detection. Methods We analyzed cases of 25 notifiable infectious diseases reported from 2015 - 2023 in the Netherlands. Negative binomial regression was used to calculate the incidence rate ratios for each period: pre-COVID, COVID 2020, COVID 2021, COVID 2022 and post-COVID. To address the decrease in notifications during COVID, we tested three correction methods 1) recoding COVID years as missing; 2) imputing with the last pre-COVID observation; and 3) imputing the historical moving average. Results Malaria, typhoid fever, hepatitis A, meningococcal infection, paratyphoid fever, Q-fever, shigellosis, measles, mumps and pertussis had significantly lower notifications during the COVID-19 pandemic, but the duration and magnitude of the effect differed among the infections. Additionally, the newly calculated alarm thresholds showed a noticeable difference compared to the original unadjusted alarm thresholds. However, the variation among the three different corrected alarm thresholds was not substantial. Conclusions During the COVID-19 pandemic, notifications of ten infectious diseases declined significantly. The duration of this decline varied among infections, highlighting the need for disease-specific adjustments. Our study demonstrates that accounting for the reduced notifications impacts alarm threshold calculations for outbreak detection. Further validation by communicable disease control professionals is essential to assess the applicability of the adjusted alarm thresholds for outbreak detection. Key messages • The COVID-19 pandemic led to declines in infectious disease notifications, which may hinder early outbreak detection. • Our study highlights the need to recalibrate outbreak signals after COVID-19 to support accurate public health action.

Abstract Issue/problem The global spread of infectious diseases poses a long-term threat to public health systems. COVID-19 revealed major gaps in real-time surveillance and data interoperability. In response, the Czech Republic launched a national digital project under the EU co-funded SCOPE IS initiative to build an integrated early warning system. Strengthening surveillance is crucial for preparedness in other countries. Description of the problem Following the shortcomings exposed during COVID-19, the goal is to create a new platform enabling real-time infectious disease notifications from GPs, paediatricians, hospitals, and laboratories through standardized REST APIs. The system builds on infrastructure used for COVID-19 vaccine tracking, ensuring rapid, automated data flow. Key questions addressed: how to achieve real-time integration across providers, ensure clinical relevance, and expand to multiple diseases. Results A major milestone is the national rollout of ARI/ILI surveillance, now covering about 90% of primary care providers. Automated data link to vaccination records, chronic conditions, and demographics, enabling consolidated reporting for public health planning. The system is being developed to integrate real-time data across care levels and types, supporting both outbreak detection and predictive modelling. Its modular design allows future expansion to other infectious diseases and adaptation to emerging public health threats. Lessons Close collaboration with frontline providers is crucial for usability and clinical relevance. Modular system architecture enables future adaptation to threats like antimicrobial resistance. These lessons are relevant for other countries aiming to modernize surveillance and strengthen preparedness. Key messages • Real-time early warning systems improve situational awareness and response to outbreaks. • Collaboration with healthcare providers ensures practical usability of digital surveillance systems.