Northern Iran Research Articles

Mid-Term Evaluation of Herbaceous Cover Restoration on Skid Trails Following Ground-Based Logging in Pure Oriental Beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) Stands of the Hyrcanian Forests, Northern Iran

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of varying traffic intensities, the time since harvesting, and the interaction between these two factors on the restoration of herbaceous cover on skid trails in the Hyrcanian forests, Northern Iran. Three compartments were selected from two districts within the pure oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) stands of Kheyrud Forest, where ground-based timber extraction had occurred 5, 10, and 15 years prior. In each compartment, three skid trails representing low, medium, and high traffic intensities were identified. Control plots were established 10 m away from the trails. A total of 54 systematically selected 1 m × 1 m sample plots were surveyed: 27 on skid trails (three traffic intensities × three time intervals × three replicates) and 27 control plots (matching the same variables). Within each quadrat, all herbaceous plants were counted, identified, and recorded. Our findings revealed that only traffic intensity had a clear significant impact on plant abundance. High traffic intensity led to a pronounced decline in herbaceous cover, with disturbed skid trails showing reduced species diversity or the complete disappearance of certain species in comparison to the control plots. Time since harvesting and its interaction with traffic intensity did not yield statistically significant effects. Disturbance led to a reduction in the quantities of certain species or even their disappearance on skid trails in comparison to the control plots. Given the pivotal role of machinery traffic intensity in determining mitigation strategies, there is a critical need for research on region-specific harvesting techniques and the development of adaptive management strategies that minimize ecological impacts by aligning practices with varying levels of traffic intensity.

Experimental Investigation of Average Nusselt Number Variations in a Heat Pipe-Evacuated Tube Solar Collector due to Presence of Acetone-Graphene Nanofluid

This study investigates the enhancement of thermal performance in Evacuated Tube Solar Collectors (ETCs) by integrating graphene nanoparticles into the heat transfer fluid. Improvement the efficiency of ETCs is crucial for maximizing solar energy utilization, particularly in regions with diverse climatic conditions. To achieve this, we conducted experiments comparing the thermal performance of the ETC under two conditions: with and without graphene nanoparticles, and at varying flow rates of condenser water (5, 10, 15, and 20 L/h) in an open space in Babol, northern Iran, over two periods in August 2022. Measurements included ambient temperature, input and output water temperatures, heat pipe temperature, and water flow rate. Key performance indicators, such as the average Nusselt number, useful heat output, and convection heat transfer, were calculated. The results indicate that the Nusselt number increased by 10.64% and overall thermal performance improved when utilizing the acetone-graphene nanofluid at a flow rate of 20 L/h under vacuum conditions (-0.6 bar) with a volume fraction of 0.08% nanoparticles. This work demonstrates a significant enhancement in thermal energy storage capabilities of ETCs, showcasing the potential of nanofluids in solar thermal applications, thereby contributing novel insights into the engineering optimization of solar collectors.

Facies analysis of gravity-flow deposits from the Upper Cretaceous of the Alborz Mountains (northern Iran)

Facies analysis of gravity-flow deposits from the Upper Cretaceous of the Alborz Mountains (northern Iran)

Coexistence of Tuberculosis and Lophomoniasis in a Patient With Alzheimer's Disease

ABSTRACTThe coexistence of lophomoniasis and tuberculosis (TB), both airborne diseases, is relatively uncommon. Co‐infections like these can complicate treatment strategies due to overlapping symptoms and potential drug interactions. We report a rare case of comorbidity involving two pulmonary diseases, lophomoniasis and TB, in an 82‐year‐old woman with Alzheimer's disease (AD) from northern Iran. Her primary symptoms included weakness, lethargy, dyspnea, sputum production, night sweats, and significant weight loss. Both TB and lophomoniasis can compromise the immune system, potentially worsening the progression or severity of AD by increasing susceptibility to infections or enhancing neuroinflammation. Following the prescription of appropriate drug regimens for both diseases, the patient was discharged from the hospital in stable condition. Overall, it is crucial to consider lophomoniasis in the differential diagnosis of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis, especially in endemic areas where both infections are prevalent, to ensure timely diagnosis and effective management.

Post-Harvest Evaluation of Logging-Induced Compacted Soils and the Role of Caucasian Alder (Alnus subcordata C.A.Mey) Fine-Root Growth in Soil Recovery

Accelerating the recovery of compacted soils caused by logging machinery using bioengineering techniques is a key goal of Sustainable Forest Management. This research was conducted on an abandoned skid trail with a uniform 15% slope and a history of heavy traffic, located in the Nav forest compartment of northern Iran. The main objectives were to assess (a) soil physical properties 35 years after skidding by a tracked bulldozer, (b) the impact of natural alder regeneration on soil recovery, and (c) the contribution of alder fine-root development to the restoration of compacted soils in beech stands. Soil physical properties and fine root biomass were analyzed across three depth classes (0–10 cm, 10–20 cm, 20–30 cm) and five locations (left wheel track (LT), between wheel tracks (BT), right wheel track (RT)) all with alder trees, and additionally control points inside the trail without alder trees (CPWA), as well as outside control points with alder trees (CPA). Sampling points near alder trees (RT, LT, BT) were compared to CPWA and CPA. CPA had the lowest soil bulk density, followed by LT, BT, RT, and CPWA. Bulk density was highest (1.35 ± 0.07 g cm−3) at the 0–10 cm depth and lowest (1.08 ± 0.4 g cm−3) at 20–30 cm. The fine root biomass at 0–10 cm depth (0.23 ± 0.21 g dm−3) was significantly higher than at deeper levels. Skid trail sampling points showed higher fine root biomass than CPWA but lower than CPA, by several orders of magnitude. Alder tree growth significantly reduced soil bulk density, aiding soil recovery in the study area. However, achieving optimal conditions will require additional time.

An investigation on fingerling grass carp Ctenopharyngodos idella ectoparasites with the first occurrence of Tylodelphys clavata as a new locality record in northern Iran

Aquaculture in Iran has been developing quickly in recent years and includes the introduction of various new species such as Chinese carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, and Hypophthalmichthys nobilis), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and stocks of common carp (Cyprinus carpio). The main aim of this study was to determine the external parasitic fauna of grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella, from aquaculture facilities in northern Iran, alongside their prevalence level, intensity, and abundance. A total of 35 fingerlings of Grass carp with an average length of 10cm and an average weight of 7g was caught from a fish farm in Guilan province, northern Iran, and transported alive to the Parasitology laboratory in the autumn of the year 2019. Common procedures of Parasitology were performed for fish sampling. All specimens (prevalence of 100%) were infected with different parasite groups. Diplostomum spathaceum and Dactylogyrus lamellatus were respectively recovered from the eyes and gills of all fish, with a mean intensity of 14.8 and 8.6 each. Also, Ichthyophthirius multifiliis was observed at the highest level of 100% in the skin and gills, followed by Gyrodactylus sp. and Tylodelphys clavata were respectively detected in the skin and eyes of grass carp with the lowest prevalence value of 20% and intensity of 1, in common each. The record of Tylodelphis clavata in grass carp in the present study is considered the first report on the northern Iranian aquaculture system.

The role of entrepreneurial motivation in the preference for causal and effectual behaviors: insights from Iran’s ecotourism sector

Purpose This study aims to investigate the role of individual-level antecedents in shaping entrepreneurial approaches, with a specific focus on entrepreneurs’ motivations. It examines what is the effect of different motivations – necessity-driven and opportunity-driven – on the entrepreneurs’ preference for effectual versus causal decision-making logics within the emerging ecotourism industry in Iran. Design/methodology/approach This study uses a quantitative approach to examine the relationship between entrepreneurial motivations and decision-making logics in the context of ecotourism. Data were collected through questionnaires distributed to 114 eco-lodge founders in northern Iran, a region increasingly recognized as a prominent ecotourism destination due to its rich natural resources. Findings The results reveal positive relationships between opportunity-based motivation and four key elements of effectuation: experimentation, affordable loss, flexibility and precommitment. Moreover, the findings suggest that necessity-driven entrepreneurs tend to favor a causal logic, while opportunity-driven entrepreneurs are more likely to use effectuation and less likely to adopt causal logic. Practical implications The findings of this study have several important practical implications for stakeholders in Iran’s emerging ecotourism sector. Insights from this research can guide the development of targeted support programs to help entrepreneurs better navigate environmental uncertainties and seize new opportunities. Ultimately, this approach will enhance management practices and decision-making, contributing to a more resilient and innovative ecotourism industry in Iran. Originality/value While prior research has established the role of environmental factors like uncertainty, there remains limited understanding of why entrepreneurs under similar conditions might choose different logics. This research advances the field by examining how individual differences, particularly motivations, influence the diverse tendencies toward entrepreneurial approaches and by providing a deeper understanding of how various motivations shape decision-making in uncertain environments.

Comparative Assessment of Woody Species for Runoff and Soil Erosion Control on Forest Road Slopes in Harvested Sites of the Hyrcanian Forests, Northern Iran

Soil erosion and surface runoff on forest road slopes are major environmental concerns, especially in harvested areas, making effective mitigation strategies essential for sustainable forest management. The study compared the effectiveness of three selected woody species on forest road slopes as a possible mitigating action for runoff and soil erosion in harvested sites. Plots measuring 2 m × 3 m were set up with three species—alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.), medlar (Mespilus germanica L.) and hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna Jacq.)—on the slopes of forest roads. Within each plot, root abundance, root density, canopy percentage, canopy height, herbaceous cover percentage, and selected soil characteristics were measured and analyzed. Root frequency and Root Area Ratio (the ratio between the area occupied by roots in a unit area of soil) measurements were conducted by excavating 50 × 50 cm soil profiles at a 10-cm distance from the base of each plant in the four cardinal directions. The highest root abundance and RAR values were found in hawthorn, followed by alder and medlar in both cases. The same order of magnitude was evidenced in runoff (255.42 mL m−2 in hawthorn followed by 176.81 mL m−2 in alder and 67.36 mL m−2 in medlar) and the reverse order in terms of soil erosion (8.23 g m−2 in hawthorn compared to 22.5 g m−2 in alder and 50.24 g m−2 in medlar). The results of the study confirm that using plant species with dense and deep roots, especially hawthorn, significantly reduces runoff and erosion, offering a nature-based solution for sustainable forest road management. These results highlight the need for further research under diverse ecological and soil conditions to optimize species selection and improve erosion mitigation strategies.

Prevalence of BRCA1 gene mutations in female breast cancer patients in Mazandaran Province, Northern Iran

BackgroundBreast cancer is one of the major global health concerns, and the investigation of mutations in the BRCA1 gene is essential for prevention and treatment. Carriers of pathogenic BRCA1 gene variants face an increased risk of breast cancer during their lifespan. Mutations in exons 2 and 16 of the BRCA1 gene are common; thus, the study was designed to determine mutations in these exons.MethodsIn the present study, 40 breast cancer patients, including 20 with a positive family history, were examined for BRCA1 mutation. The BRCA1 gene was analyzed through direct PCR product sequencing. Polyphen-2, sorting intolerant from tolerant (SIFT), and Protein variation effect analyzer (PROVEAN) software were used to predict the role of variants on protein function.ResultsSix of the breast cancer patients (15%) carried the heterozygous missense polymorphism c.4837A > G (p. Ser1613Gly) in exon 16. In exon 16 of the BRCA1 gene, three homozygous variants (7.5%) c.4837A > G (p. Ser1613Gly) were observed. c.4803delA mutation was detected in 4 patients (10%) in exon 16 of the BRCA1 gene, a novel and pathogenic mutation.ConclusionWomen carrying mutations in the BRCA1 gene face a significantly increased lifetime risk of breast cancer-related mortality. Therefore, it is vital to detect BRCA1 gene mutation in carrier women before the onset of cancer so that subsequent preventive strategies such as surgical prevention and chemoprevention can be implemented.

The Relationship Between Metabolic Syndrome and Kidney Stone Disease: A Cross-Sectional Study From the PERSIAN Guilan Cohort Study.

Background: Based on the high prevalence of kidney stone disease (KSD) and its possible relationship with metabolic components, the aim of this study was to examine the associations of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and its components with KSD. Methods: This is a cross-sectional assessment of the Prospective Epidemiological Research Studies of Iranian Adults (PERSIAN) Guilan cohort study (PGCS), which includes 10,520 participants aged between 35 and 70 in northern Iran from 2014 to 2017. Demographic data and clinical characteristics were filled out. MetS was determined by the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP-ATP III) with the following criteria: hypertriglyceridemia, low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), hypertension, abdominal obesity, and hyperglycemia. The association of self-reported KSD with MetS was examined using logistic regression analysis. Odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were calculated. Results: The prevalence of MetS and KSD was 41.8% and 15.6%, respectively. In the unadjusted model, MetS was associated with 18% increased odds of KSD (OR = 1.18, 95% CI: 1.06-1.31). This association remained significant after adjustment for some demographic characteristics (aOR = 1.30, 95% CI: 1.16-1.46). All MetS components except for low HDL-C were also associated with increased odds of KSD, after adjusting for some demographic variables. In addition, the odds of KSD increased with the number of MetS components, up to an almost 2.2-fold odds among subjects with all five MetS components. Conclusion: This study found that the risk of KSD increases with MetS as a whole, all MetS components except for low HDL-C, and the number of MetS components. Our study might provide evidence for individualized management of MetS for preventing KSD.

Redescription and revalidation of Plectonchus zondagi (Dale, 1967) Abolafia, Alizadeh & Khakvar, 2016 (Rhabditida, Brevibuccidae) from Iran with notes on taxonomic position of the genus

Summary Plectonchus zondagi is redescribed based on a population found in northern Iran. New morphological characterisations based on light and scanning electron microscopy are provided. Also, molecular analyses based on near full-length of small subunit and partial large subunit (SSU and LSU D2-D3) rDNA are provided. The recovered population of this species is characterised by having lips fused in pairs, amphidial openings posterior to frontal end, stoma with large cheilo-gymnostom, pharynx with scarcely swollen metacorpus, female reproductive system prodelphic, absence of post-vulval uterine sac, male with angular spicules and sigmoid gubernaculum and tail in both sexes conoid with acute tip bearing a refringent cuticular ring between the attached and detached parts of the tail cuticle. Phylogenetic analyses based on SSU and D2-D3 fragments of LSU rDNA showed that P. zondagi was nested within the family Brevibuccidae; however, additional sequences from valid species of the genus are required to confirm its classification within this family, as morphological data suggest.

Effects of biotopes on the quality of cherry wood (Prunus avium) in Tunisia

Cherry (Prunus valium (L.) Rosaceae) is native to Europe, Afghanistan and North Africa. Its native range extends from the British Isles to Morocco and Tunisia down south, to the region of Norway in the north, the Caucasus in the east and northern Iran, Anatolia, Maghreb, and Western Asia in the west. There is also a small, isolated population located in the western Himalaya. The plant has been extensively farmed in other parts of the world and is now native to Australia, New Zealand, and North America. This species is exploited in forestry for its quality of wood. The objective of this study is to evaluate the physical and mechanical properties of cherry wood and to investigate the influence of growth sites to provide value-added assessment pathways. The study was carried out within the Tabarka and Ain Draham stations. In each site, we selected 75 dominant P. avium specimens. The dendrometric characteristics, the observations of the degree of infection, the straightness of the stems, and the physico-mechanical properties were studied. The result of the statistical analysis showed a significant difference in the dendrometric parameters according to the stations. The results obtained showed that 66% of the trees inventoried in Tabarka have straight stems. The number of trees affected by rot varies according to the stations, with 44% in Ain Draham. The rate of decay varies with age, so most infected trees are old (diameter at breast height > 30 cm). The wood is characterized by a density of 627 to 629 kg/m3 and is classified as medium hardwood with a Monnin hardness of approximately 4.3. Moreover, the values of the static bending breaking stress and the axial compression vary respectively from 94.95 to 99.85 MPa and from 44.5 to 51.7 MPa. These values vary according to the sources and have a significant effect at the 1% level. Accordingly, we classify cherry wood as having moderate strength. Cherry was cultivated for its noble uses such as interior carpentry and cabinet making as an excellent alternative to very expensive precious woods. Thus, in order to improve the condition of the trees, careful monitoring of the plantations must be carried out.Cherry was cultivated for its noble uses such as interior carpentry and cabinet making as an excellent alternative to very expensive precious woods. Thus, in order to improve the condition of the trees, careful monitoring of the plantations must be carried out.

Russian Officialdom and the Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1905–1911

Abstract This article centers on tsarist Russian officials’ understandings of and approaches to the Iranian Constitutional Revolution (1905–11). Although these officials relied on fragmental information and reflected internal discoordination in their dealings with Iran over the course of the revolution, a diachronic shift marked the policies they formulated in response. Although many of them attempted to navigate the Constitutional Revolution’s complexity in its early phases, they tended toward the use of force as unrest continued, culminating in the Russian invasion of northern Iran in December 1911. Uncritically confident in their exercise of power, Russian officials proceeded without considering alternative courses of action or the potential costs of military engagement in the revolution’s final stages. This heavy-handedness reflected continuity with the tsarist government’s crackdowns on socialists in the Caucasus after the Russian Revolution of 1905, and presaged its repressive, self-defeating responses to uprisings across the Russian Empire from 1912 to 1917.

The Efficacy and Safety of Pre-operative Bolus Intravenous Lidocaine for Intraoperative Awareness in Cesarean Section: A Randomized Clinical Trial

Background: Caesarean section (CS) under general anesthesia (GA) can be associated with an increased risk of intraoperative awareness (IOA). However, the safe pharmacological options are limited in CS. Objectives: This study investigated the effect of preoperative intravenous lidocaine on IOA in CS. Methods: This clinical trial was conducted at Alzahra Teaching Hospital, a referral center in northern Iran affiliated with Guilan University of Medical Sciences (GUMS). From August 2023 to November 2024, eligible women candidates for CS under GA were enrolled in the study and divided into two groups: Lidocaine (n = 26) and placebo (n = 26). In the postpartum stage, a questionnaire containing demographic information and questions about different stages of anesthesia was completed via direct interview. Heart rate (HR) and mean arterial pressure (MAP) were recorded at four time points: before injection of lidocaine (T0), immediately after intubation (T1), at the end of surgery (T2), and after extubation (T3). Results: Of the 52 eligible women, 15.3% experienced IOA. Among the 8 women (15.3%) who experienced IOA, 15 cases of different states of awareness were detected. "Dreaming during surgery and anesthesia" was reported by 53.3%, and "feeling the manipulation of the surgical area" by 26.6% were the most common types of detected awareness states. In terms of MAP and HR changes, a significant difference was recorded only at T1 (P < 0.0001). Conclusions: Preoperative lidocaine could be safely administered in CS with no adverse events and showed positive effects on hemodynamic status. However, at this dosage and timing, it had no significant effect on the incidence of IOA.

The Impact of Lithological Features and Landform Characteristics on the Prevalence of Geomorphological Hazards in the Arangeh Catchment, (Central Alborz Mts, Northern Iran)

In recent years, the impacts of natural disasters on rural areas, urban settings, farmlands, transportation systems, and constructed infrastructures have received considerable focus. This study began with recognizing natural hazards by evaluating available data and conducting field research. Following that, a risk layer was created by superimposing environmental elements that affect the likelihood of risks, including geological features and landform types, which were analyzed through geomorphon techniques. The research also measured the probability of risk occurrence across various categories of independent variables. Results indicate that geological and topographical elements are vital in influencing the types of natural hazards within the Arangeh catchment. In particular, rock formations such as conglomerate, green tuff, sand, shale, and young alluvium found in young terraces exhibit the highest potential for hazards. The likelihood and variety of hazards amplify when these lithological units are located on elevated and steep landscapes. Additionally, the presence of faults significantly influences hazards associated with mass movements, including rock falls. The widest range of hazards within the Arangeh catchment can be found in slope, hollow, and valley landforms. To prevent an increase in risks, it is essential to avoid expanding settlements in these areas designated for garden purposes.

Assessment and Risk Analysis of Nitrosamines in Sausages From Northern Iran.

This study aimed to assess the levels of nitrosamines in sausages consumed in northern Iran and the associated health risks for consumers. For this purpose, two types of sausages, chicken and red meat (60 samples each), were randomly collected from meat product supply centers in the cities of Gilan province from December 2022 to March 2023. The levels of nitrosamines were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). For risk evaluation, BMDL10 and MOE were used. In chicken sausages, nitrosamine levels ranged from 0.38 μg/kg (NDPA) to 7.77 μg/kg (NMEA). Red meat sausages ranged from 0.69 μg/kg (NDBA) to 9.59 μg/kg (NMEA). According to the results of the statistical analysis, the level of NDBA in the two types of sausage samples did not show a significant difference. However, a significant difference was observed in the mean levels of other nitrosamines between the two types of sausages. Red meat sausages had the highest mean nitrosamine concentration at 30.71 ± 0.87 μg/kg. The MOE values for both sausage types were below 10,000, indicating a health risk for consumers. These findings indicate the need for regulatory intervention to control nitrite levels in sausages in Gilan province.

Long-term tree growth-climate relationships of Fagus orientalis Lipsky at high-elevation forest edges in the Alborz Mountains, northern Iran

Long-term tree growth-climate relationships of Fagus orientalis Lipsky at high-elevation forest edges in the Alborz Mountains, northern Iran

Pedogenesis and paleoenvironmental reconstruction in northern Iran: The loess-paleosol sequence at Baluchabad

Pedogenesis and paleoenvironmental reconstruction in northern Iran: The loess-paleosol sequence at Baluchabad

A capsule network framework for flood mapping integrating remote sensing fusion techniques

Abstract Flooding is one of the most serious natural hazards worldwide, causing significant and often irreversible damage to economies, infrastructure, and human health in urban areas. The rising frequency of flood events and concerns about the likelihood of future occurrences underscore the urgent need for thorough investigations into flood dynamics. Creating a flood hazard area map is the first critical step in evaluating flood-related damage. In this work, a new flood mapping methodology is presented, which integrates multiple datasets. In this methodology, optical and radar remote sensing data are fused, utilizing a deep learning capsule network. Thanks to the multi-dimensional/multi-scale kernels and feature extraction in vector form within the suggested capsule network, notable outcomes are achieved. The proposed flood mapping methodology is implemented in three main steps: (1) fusing radar and optical data, (2) utilizing a capsule deep learning network to preserve the relationships among features extracted from the convolutional neural network (CNN), and (3) applying a mechanism to enhance the accuracy of flood zoning. The suggested method is utilized for flood mapping in the Gorganrood watershed in northern Iran, employing Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 imagery. The results were rigorously compared to established methods, including CNN and weighted CNN ensemble (WCNNE). The results demonstrated that the suggested method outperformed CNN by 6.96% and WCNNE by 3.72% in overall accuracy and provided a remarkable area under the receiver operating curve of 98.34%. It was also observed that incorporating the attention mechanism slightly increased the accuracy of the proposed network by 0.23%. The findings suggest that the proposed methodology has considerable potential for accurate floodwater mapping globally.

Health risk assessment of Pb, Cd, and Zn in leafy and bulb vegetables from northern Iran using Monte Carlo simulation

Abstract Vegetables are important sources of essential minerals and vitamins for a healthy lives. However, vegetable contamination may cause severe health risks. The present study evaluated the health risks of three heavy metals (HMs) including lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and zinc (Zn) in six types of vegetables commonly consumed in the north of Iran (Dill, Onion, Fenugreek, Garlic, Spinach, and Peppermint). A total of 60 vegetable samples were collected and analyzed using the standard methods. The mean concentrations were 1.55 (Pb), 0.05 (Cd), and 10.43 (Zn) mg/kg dry weight (DW). The results revealed that the concentration of Pb in all vegetables and that of Cd in onions were higher than the World Health Organization (WHO)'s maximum allowable concentrations. The probabilistic health risk assessment through consumption of the studied vegetables for adults and children was estimated using the Monte Carlo simulation (MCS). The 95th percentile estimated Hazard index (HI) for the six vegetables ranged from 0.02 to 0.53 for adults and 0.03 to 0.87 for children. Correspondingly, the Target carcinogenic risk (TCR) values ranged from 8.21×10⁻7 to 3.67×10⁻⁵for adults and from 1.58×10⁻⁶to 5.20×10⁻⁵for children. Although the MCS indicated that the 95th percentile values of the HI and TCR for any of the six vegetables in both populations exceeded point estimates, they remained below permissible thresholds, (HI < 1, TCR < 1×10⁻⁴). However, the high concentration of metals, especially Pb in these vegetables necessitates special attention in their long-term consumption. To reduce the adverse effects of vegetables contaminated with heavy metals, it is necessary to use organic fertilizers and reduce the consumption of chemical fertilizers, prohibit the use of sewage sludge, and implement careful and continuous monitoring of soil and irrigation water.