North West Research Articles

Evaluation of Rainfall Distribution Based on the Precipitation Concentration Index: A Case Study over the Selected Summer Rainfall Regions of South Africa

The Precipitation Concentration Index (PCI) is considered a powerful tool that can be used to analyse the spatial and temporal distribution and variability of precipitation over a region. It plays a significant role in planning and managing water resources, including monitoring and forecasting drought and flood risks. As such, the present study used the PCI to investigate the spatio-temporal distribution of precipitation in summer rainfall regions covering six selected South African provinces. Specifically, this study analysed monthly precipitation data from 49 rainfall districts spanning from 1979 to 2023 and assessed the spatio-temporal variability patterns of annual, seasonal and supra-seasonal PCI values and their trends based on the Mann–Kendall trend test. Pearson’s correlation was used to evaluate the relationship between the PCI values and precipitation across the provinces. Moderate annual PCI values were observed mainly in KwaZulu-Natal and the eastern regions of the Free State and Mpumalanga provinces. A large portion of the study site exhibited irregular annual precipitation concentrations. The PCI decreased by −1.5 and −1.2 magnitudes of change during 1979–1989 and 2000–2011 and increased by 2.1 and 2.8 magnitudes between 1990–2000 and 2012–2023, respectively. Uniform precipitation concentration was mostly recorded during the December–January–February (DJF) season. The entire study area recorded moderate precipitation concentration during the March–April–May (MAM) and September–October–November (SON) seasons (with exceptions for KwaZulu-Natal (KZN)). In addition, irregular precipitation concentration dominated during the June–July–August (JJA) rainy season. All provinces except KZN recorded positive trends in annual PCI. Also, positive trends in PCI were observed during the supra-wet season across the provinces, except KZN and in parts of the Free State. Furthermore, negative trends in seasonal PCI were mostly dominant during DJF and MAM, while positive trends were mostly observed during SON and JJA rainy seasons. The annual PCI values were positively correlated with annual precipitation in KZN, Free State and Limpopo, while negative correlations were observed in Mpumalanga and North West provinces. The results presented in this study contribute to drought and flood monitoring in support of water resource management and planning.

Barriers and facilitators of incorporating Ubuntu principles in the integrated management of childhood illness.

Success in incorporating Ubuntu principles in the integrated management of childhood illness (IMCI) requires collaboration between health professionals and families and assistance from their communities. Despite this, the literature reviewed is silent about exploring caregivers' perspectives regarding the barriers and facilitators of incorporating Ubuntu principles in managing childhood illness. The study explored and described the barriers and facilitators of incorporating Ubuntu principles in managing childhood illness. The study was conducted in selected primary healthcare settings, community health centres and clinics in the Mafikeng sub-district of the North West province. The study was conducted using exploratory descriptive contextual, qualitative design. The 36 participants were selected using purposeful sampling. Data were collected through focus group discussions, and thematic analysis was used to analyse the data. The study revealed three themes: the negative attitude of professional nurses, communication barriers and facilitators enhancing the incorporation of Ubuntu into IMCI. The findings indicated that health education of caregivers is crucial, the right allocation of nurses will facilitate the inclusion of Ubuntu into IMCI and the unannounced visit of government authorities will also facilitate the incorporation. The study illustrated that caregivers face several barriers hindering the incorporation of Ubuntu in IMCI. These findings support the need for healthcare providers to prioritise the incorporation of Ubuntu principles for better management of childhood illness for children under the age of five.Contribution:This is the first study to report the barriers and facilitators of incorporating Ubuntu principles into IMCI.

Optimisation of Indoor Spatial and Temporal Aspects of Deep Architectural Studio on Visual Comfort

Visual comfort in deep rooms with side lit openings varies by positions and time; thus, interventions are required to provide comfort for all users in a room. This study aims to identify the conditions affecting visual comfort and potential interventions on spatial and temporal aspects of a room. This experiment comprises two layout settings: semi-enclosed studio layout and open studio layout with variables of zone (perimeter and core), viewing direction (north window, east wall, south window, and west wall), and temporal aspect (morning, midday, and afternoon), which determines how each aspect influences visual comfort. In this study, visual comfort is indicated using vertical eye illuminance (Ev) and daylight glare probability (DGP). Field measurements of daylighting performance were taken over five days and three times per day using a light meter to capture Ev and HDR images, which were then processed using Aftab Alpha software to produce DGP values. The results indicate that visual comfort in a deep room sequentially depends on view direction, zone, layout, and time. The value of Ev in deep rooms is significantly influenced by the type of opening, specifically the side lighting, which results in short penetration and does not reach the room core. Additionally, it depends on outdoor conditions. Consequently, the value at the perimeter is much higher than that at the core. By contrast, the glare sensation was not influenced by outdoor conditions during the day. Adjusting the view direction can control the less-than-ideal sitting position to obtain visual comfort. Additionally, correcting the sitting position in the zone can improve visual comfort at various times. Obstruction in the room plays a positive role in controlling glare and plays a negative role when reducing Ev. The period of visual discomfort throughout the day identified that the worst conditions occur in the morning owing to the lack of Ev. The optimum condition occurs during the day in the west wall and south window view direction, south perimeter zone, and semi-enclosed studio layout. Therefore, view direction and zone are effective features for obtaining visual comfort. Nevertheless, the layout type, room surface properties, and obstruction can also enhance visual comfort in various time conditions such as in the morning, afternoon, or evening. Horizontal plane components such as ceilings can expand the effects of Ev and reduce the effects of DGP in the morning or on cloudy days. The findings have implications for the design of deep rooms such as offices, studios, museums, and galleries in arranging the characteristics of horizontal and vertical surfaces of furniture and layout room that can affect the performance of the user.

Enhancing mental health resilience in the healthcare workforce during COVID-19: lessons from The North West Offer

Enhancing mental health resilience in the healthcare workforce during COVID-19: lessons from The North West Offer

Teachers’ perceptions on including learners with barriers to learning in South African inclusive education system

Background: Inclusive Education acknowledges that all children can learn, but requires support. However, addressing learning barriers and responding to diverse needs remains a challenge in some South African schools, leading to the exclusion of some learners.Objectives: This study explored teachers’ perceptions of including learners who experience barriers to learning and responding to their diverse learning needs.Method: A qualitative case study was conducted using purposive sampling to select six schools across two geographical contexts within one district in the North West province, South Africa. Focus groups were conducted with six school-based support teams (three to five members each), and semi-structured interviews were conducted with six school principals.Results: Teachers expressed concerns about inadequate and limited training in inclusive education, which contributes to persistent negative attitudes. The continued application of the medical model still prevailed. Systemic challenges such as overcrowded classrooms, limited teaching and learning time, insufficient policy guidance, and inadequate support from district-based support teams were also highlighted.Conclusion: Teachers’ reluctance to implement inclusive education policies may be linked to perceptions of inadequate training and lack of resources to address diverse learner needs. Many teachers still follow the medical model rather than an inclusive approach to equitable education. A shift towards inclusive practices requires regular review and support to prevent learner exclusion.Contribution: The study contributes to policy and practice by advocating for ongoing review and enhancement of inclusive education strategies and pedagogies.

Assessing Wildlife Crop Raiding and Community Response to Conservation Initiatives in the Kimbi-Fungom National Park and Its Buffer Zones, North West Region of Cameroon

Aim: Wildlife crop raiding is a serious problem facing communities around protected areas today. This study set out to investigate the impact of wildlife crop raiding on conservation efforts in the Kimbi-Fungom National Park and its buffer zones, Cameroon. Methods: Both biological and socio-economic methods were used to achieve the aim of this study. The biological method used transects walks, reconnaissance movements and opportunistic observations to identify and classify the different wildlife species in and around the park. The socio-economic methods employed the use of interviews, questionnaires and focus group discussions. A total of 20 long transects were randomly generated using ARCGIS and a GPS was used to trace each transect's starting and end points. Along each transect all wildlife species, either through direct observation or indirect signs, were recorded. A questionnaire and interview guide was purposely given to farmers to identify the wildlife species that visit the farms and their magnitude of destruction. A total of 150 questionnaires were administered to 150 households who were all farmers in 10 communities in and around the parks using the purposive random method. Interviews were granted to key informants and to forest guards in the park. Results: Results showed that there are 16 species of wildlife involved in crop raiding from sowing through flowering to maturing. Among the species, 100% of respondents opined that rodents frequent the farms more than any other species, while primates are the most destructive wildlife. A majority of the respondents (42%) confirmed that they guard their crops against wildlife invasion. This was followed by those who use scary items to frighten wildlife on their farms (23%). Crop raid remains a threat to their livelihood, as confirmed by the majority (68%) of respondents. From the results obtained from the field, a majority of the respondents (50%) strongly agreed that there is always frustration and anger whenever their crops are damaged by wildlife. This was followed by those who strongly agreed that animals are not as useful to them as crops (45%). Conclusion and Recommendation: Primates and rodents are the main raiders of crops in the park, making them more vulnerable to hunting activities. Farmers argued that they cannot spare wildlife at the detriment of their crops. It is highly recommended that conservation education be encouraged in the park region.

Harnessing Cultural Attractions for Sustainable Development in Mezam Division, North West Region of Cameroon

This article examines cultural attractions in Mezam Division and their potential contributions to sustainable development. Through a comprehensive analysis of the area’s rich cultural heritage, including arts and craft(gastronomy), traditional manifestations (annual festivals), architecture, and natural landscapes, the study explore how these assets can be strategically harnessed to promote economic, social and environmental sustainability. The research made use of a mixed- methods approach including surveys, field observations and in-depth interviews to assess the current status of cultural attractions and their potential role in sustainable development. A stratified purposeful sampling technique was used to select 95 respondents. The findings reveal that Mezam Division is endowed with diverse cultural attractions which offer significant opportunities in fostering sustainable development in the area. However, these potentials remain underutilized to fully address sustainability issues. There is therefore, a need for strategic interventions in order to effectively harness cultural attractions for sustainable development in Mezam Division.

Regional Determinants of Child Mortality in Nigeria: Evidence from Survival Analysis

Objective: This study investigated regional determinants of child mortality in northern Nigeria, focusing on socio-economic, demographic, and environmental factors. Methods: Data from the 2018 Nigerian Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) on 10,400 under-five children were analyzed. Kaplan-Meier survival curves and the Cox Proportional Hazards model assessed survival probabilities and risk factors. However, the proportional hazards (PH) assumption was violated (χ² = 1190.00, df = 13, p < 2e-16), indicating time-varying effects. Consequently, the Weibull model was used for a more precise estimation. Results: Kaplan-Meier estimates revealed significant regional disparities in child survival (p < 0.0001), with North Central having the highest survival, North East intermediate, and North West the lowest. The log-rank test (χ² = 176.214, p < 0.001) confirmed these differences. The Weibull model identified male children as having a higher mortality riskcompared to female children, likely due to biological vulnerabilities and variations in healthcare. Larger households and shorter birth intervals increased mortality risk due to resource constraints. In contrast, improved sanitation and clean water access significantly reduced mortality. Higher maternal education, household wealth, and breastfeeding were strongly associated with better survival. Notably, not breastfed children had a 45%, 46%, and 49% higher mortality risk across regions. Birth intervals exceeding 35 months and maternal age at first birth between 29 and 36 years improved survival. Conclusion: These findings emphasized the need for policy interventions, including family planning, improved sanitation, maternal education, and breastfeeding promotion, to reduce child mortality and regional disparities in Nigeria.

Food Crops Cultivated and Marketed in the South West Region of Cameroon

The primary objective of this paper is to illuminate the various food crops that are cultivated for household consumption and also used as items of trade in local transactions in the South West Region of Cameroon. The South West Region is one of the ten regions that make up the Republic of Cameroon. The other nine regions are Central, Littoral, Eastern, Adamawa, South, North, Extreme North and North West. The culinary history of the people of the South West Region is particularly attractive and impressive because of a multiplicity of factors, including the ethnic, linguistic, nutritional, and cultural diversity of the region. The major ethnic groups found in the region include Bakweri, Bambuko, Ejaghan, Bakundu, Balundu, Bakossi, Anyang, Banyang, and Mbo. Due to the presence of Mount Fako which is the highest mountain in West Africa, the region has the most fertile soil found in the country. This has led to the cultivation of a variety of export crops such as cocoa, coffee, bananas, oil palms, rubber and tea. Contrary to cash crops, the prominent food crops grown in the region both for domestic consumption and also as items of local trade include yams, pumpkins, watermelon, okra, oil palms, cola nuts, cocoyams, maize, plantains and others. Each of these food items discussed in the paper is broken down into varieties, and the date when each variety was introduced into the South West Region of Cameroon is also given. The prominent source of animal protein in the Region is essentially beef which is quite expensive because cattle must be imported from the Northern Regions of Cameroon. It is worth mentioning the point that very few cattle are reared in South West Cameroon because of the prevalence of the tse-tse fly which causes trypanosomiasis, a disease which kills cattle. Some people in the rural areas keep fowls, sheep, goats and pigs but these often do not form part of the regular diet. These domesticated animals are used as an integral part of bride-wealth payment, and also play a part during festivals and traditional celebrations. To make a request or settle a dispute requires a gift which is often given in livestock. For this paper to be realised, two categories of sources were consulted, including primary and secondary sources. Primary sources were essentially archival materials, while secondary sources were both published and unpublished. Published sources included printed articles and published books. Unpublished sources for their part were theses and dissertations.

An Efficient Deep Learning Method for Typhoon Track Prediction Based on Spatiotemporal Similarity Feature Mining

Typhoon is one of the most destructive natural disasters, and it affects human society significantly. To reduce the negative impacts, many deep learning models for predicting future typhoon tracks have appeared. However, most of these models use all of the data they obtain as input, which may cause the diversity of typhoon tracks to have a negative impact on the prediction outcomes. In this paper, a joint method is proposed. The method mainly includes two parts: First, use a spatiotemporal similarity feature mining model to find out paths that are similar to the ongoing typhoon. Second, a deep learning model for processing sequence data is trained by these similar paths and then used for predicting the future track points’ latitude and longitude. The joint method bridges the gap in deep learning models’ ability to process spatial information and the shortcomings of spatiotemporal similarity feature mining models in predicting future data. In the experiment, we use a spatiotemporal similarity feature mining model to generate different input datasets by changing the number of similar paths in it, which can compare the model’s accuracy in different inputs. Also, real typhoon data recorded in the North West Pacific Ocean are used in the experiment. Through a comparison between the real path and prediction results in longitude and latitude, we find that 100–250 similar typhoon tracks as input have the best prediction effect in different tasks and are more accurate in long-term prediction.

Student teacher perspectives on history education: a comparison of primary and secondary student teacher thinking about the purpose of history at the start of their teacher education course in England

This study provides the first comparison of primary and secondary student teachers’ perspectives on history education and its purpose at the beginning of an Initial Teacher Education postgraduate diploma/certificate in education in England. It aims to identify similarities and differences in the student teachers’ thinking about history and its purpose as a school subject to foster discourse within the Initial Teacher Education community about how best to support their development. The findings are drawn from a small-scale inductive theory development study, conducted at a university in North West England. Qualitative data were collected from 35 participants, 19 primary Initial Teacher Education students and 16 secondary, using a questionnaire containing Likert scale questions and a ranking activity relating to statements about the purpose of history education. Overall, the data revealed significant commonalities and some divergence between primary and secondary student teacher views of the purpose of history, particularly regarding knowledge, perspectives and empathy. Divergence seemed to occur due to history education level rather than due to choice of phase-specific teacher education route, thus highlighting a need for Initial Teacher Education programmes to provide specific input on the purpose of history at the outset of all teacher education courses.

Soil Phosphorus Fractions and Balance in Response to Integrated Phosphorus Management in an Acid Alfisol of North West Himalayas

Soil Phosphorus Fractions and Balance in Response to Integrated Phosphorus Management in an Acid Alfisol of North West Himalayas

Spatial clusters of poverty among rural women in Nigeria: analysis and underlying predictors

ABSTRACT Poverty is a major global challenge, with growing evidence of its feminisation in developing countries like Nigeria. This study uses data from the 2018/2019 Nigeria Living Standard Survey to identify poverty hotspots and predictors among rural women in Nigeria. Results reveal that 75.9% of rural women are multidimensionally poor, with poverty hotspots in the North West and North East regions. Key determinants include household size, expenditure, education, land ownership and access to credit. The study recommends focusing poverty reduction efforts on these high-poverty areas, improving health, living standards, work opportunities and resilience to shocks to meet global and national goals.

Food, Pregnancy & Me: Exploring food insecurity in pregnancy in the UK to inform future public health intervention needs-A mixed-methods study protocol.

There are several known risks relating to poor nutrition during pregnancy, including the development of complications and poor birth outcomes. While food insecurity is associated with poorer nutrition, data on the prevalence and severity of food insecurity in pregnancy in the UK is lacking. This study aims to explore the prevalence, experiences and health impact of food insecurity in pregnancy in England to develop strategic recommendations for intervention strategies. Food, Pregnancy & Me is an observational, multi-method study. Questionnaires exploring diet quality, food security, mental health, and other health behaviours will be distributed to all women and pregnant people in their third trimester in two NHS Trusts in England (North East and West Midlands). Returned questionnaires (n=605) will be linked to routine maternal and birth outcome data and pseudo-anonymised. We will estimate the prevalence of food insecurity in pregnancy in these locations, associations with diet quality, maternal mental health, and pregnancy outcomes (e.g., pre-term birth, pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes). Qualitative interviews (n=40) with participants identified as having experienced food insecurity will explore their lived experience, support received, and recommendations for additional support needs. Through a series of co-production workshops with local and national system shapers and experts by lived experience, we will use the data gathered to produce strategic recommendations for intervention with pregnant women and people facing food insecurity. We will then explore the potential costs and benefits of implementing the proposed recommendations. Ethical approval was obtained from Newcastle and North Tyneside 1 NHS Research Ethics Committee (24/NE/0027). Findings will be disseminated to key national and local system shapers and policy makers, advocacy groups, and the public through reports, presentations, the media and open access publications. ISRCTN16655955.

Factors Influencing Maize Value Addition in the Northwest Region of Cameroon

Aims: To determine the factors influencing maize value addition in the North West Region of Cameroon, and to identify the constraints associated with participation in maize value addition. Study Design: In this study, we used the Cross-sectional survey design. Place and Duration of Study: Five subdivisions in Mezam, North West Region of Cameroon, between 2023 and 2024. Methodology: Empirical data was collected from 500 maize entrepreneurs through purposive, stratified random and the snow ball sampling techniques and analysed using the binomial logistic regression model and descriptive statistics. Results: The binomial logistic regression analysis showed that income, and good storage facility had a significant positive effect on maize value addition while gender and access to extension services, had a significant negative effect on maize value addition in the Northwest region of Cameroon. However, lack of processing infrastructure and equipment, insufficient finances, Insufficient technical knowledge and skills were identified as the primary constraints impeding participation in maize value addition. Conclusion: The findings highlight important recommendations for enhancing maize value addition in the North West Region of Cameroon. First, it is important for the Government and NGOs to empower both men and women in maize value addition. Second, enhancing financial support for low and middle-income entrepreneurs is very crucial. Additionally, improving extension services to address the specific needs of maize processors is vital and lastly investing in better storage facilities will help minimize losses and facilitate timely processing, ultimately increasing participation in maize value addition for entrepreneurs.

Selenium and Glutathione Peroxidase Levels in Persons with Epilepsy and Healthy Controls in Two Tertiary Hospitals in North West Nigeria: A Comparative Study

Selenium and Glutathione Peroxidase Levels in Persons with Epilepsy and Healthy Controls in Two Tertiary Hospitals in North West Nigeria: A Comparative Study

Predictability of the Onset of the Rainy Season Across Thailand: Mechanisms and Non‐Stationary Behaviour

ABSTRACTThe onset of the rainy season across 36 stations of Thailand is analysed from 1951 to 2022. The country‐scale mean onset occurs in late April with an interannual standard deviation of 11.5 days. It tends to be anomalously late (respectively, early) during decaying warm (respectively, cold) El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events. Warm ENSO events delay the onset through a deep anticyclonic anomaly over the western North Pacific, intensification of the southern margins of the subtropical westerly jet, sustained easterly low‐level anomalies north of the equator and an anomalous anticyclonic circulation combined with in situ cold sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies over the tropical NW Pacific. The predictability of the country‐scale onset from February or March SST is large and statistically significant from ~1980, suggesting a high level of confidence for operational forecasts. However, the analysis of 1950–1970s reveals a lack of stationarity to the extent that the SST–onset relationships were then hardly present. Consistently, the spatial coherence of the local‐scale onset as well as its predictability and its interannual variability all increase from the start to the end of the period. This non‐stationarity seems fundamentally due to a change in the seasonal structure of the decay of warm ENSO events themselves, that is, from ~1980 onwards, they last longer retaining warm equatorial Eastern Pacific SST anomalies through the boreal spring, while the decaying cold ENSO events have undergone no clear change in seasonality. In consequence, in recent decades, the warm ENSO events significantly impact the April–May atmospheric structure over South East Asia, thus delaying the rainy season onset across Thailand. A long‐term significant warming SST has occurred over the tropical North West Pacific, which may potentially reduce the impact of warm ENSO events by reducing the in situ anticyclonic anomaly.

Knowledge, attitude, and perceived barriers towards pharmaceutical care among graduating pharmacy students in North West, Ethiopia. -a multicenter cross-sectional study

IntroductionPharmaceutical care (PC) is a pharmacist’s responsibility, and its provision of medication-related care is meant to improve patients’ quality of life. The future of PC is in the hands of graduating pharmacy students (GPS). Good knowledge and a positive attitude toward providing PC is essential among pharmacy students. In addition, identifying and resolving perceived barriers is crucial for PC.MethodA Cross-sectional study was conducted among GPS using a single-stage cluster sampling technique in North West, Ethiopia. A self-administered questionnaire was used to measure knowledge, attitude, and perceived barriers of GPS toward PC provision. The data that passed the quality check were entered and analyzed using Statically Package for Social Science version 27.0. Kruskal-Wallis H test and Mann-Whitney U test were performed to assess the difference in PC knowledge and attitude, and P-value < 0.05 was used to declare statistically significant difference.ResultOverall, 140 GPS participated, giving a response rate of 90.3%, and the mean (± SD) age was 23.72 ± 2.87 years. Overall, 122 (87.1%) and 54 (38.6%) GPS have good PC knowledge and positive attitudes toward provision of PC, respectively. Half of the GPS perceived that lack of therapeutics knowledge prevents them from providing PC. Statistically significant differences were observed in PC knowledge and attitude based on institution, education level before joining the program, source of motivation, previous incomplete grades, and participation in extracurricular activities.ConclusionGraduating pharmacy students’ knowledge on PC is adequate. But only less than half of the GPS have a positive attitude toward the provision of PC. Identifying barriers and tackling them is crucial to improve practitioners’ attitude and the PC provision service. Promoting inclusive health policies on PC can improve the PC provision.

Impact of Malaria and Intestinal Parasitic Infections on Inflammatory Cytokines amongst Armed Forces of the North West and South West, Cameroon

Malaria and intestinal helminthic infections present a significant public health challenge, particularly in tropical regions. The study was designed to determine the impact of Malaria and Intestinal helminthic infections on inflammatory cytokines amongst Armed Forces in the North West and South West Cameroon. This was a cross-sectional study carried out between May 2022 to April 2024. A total of 812 stool and venous blood samples were collected for the identification of malaria and intestinal parasites and for evaluation of inflammatory cytokines. The study used Giemsa staining and Kato-Katz methods to identify malaria and intestinal parasites, while Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to evaluate inflammatory cytokine concentrations and statistical comparisons were performed using SPSS. Results obtained showed that the prevalence of Malaria, intestinal helminths and co-infections were 13.6%, 22.8% and 3.2% respectively. TNF-α, INF-γ, and IL-1β concentration mean levels were significant in Plasmodium falciparum infected participants (p = 0.000). Trichuris trichiura infected participants showed a positive significant impact on TNF-α (p = 0.000); IL-1β (p = 0.000) and IL-6 (p = 0.035) while Schistosoma mansoni showed a significant impact on TNF-α (p = 0.044) and IL-1β (p = 0.037). Schistosoma intercalatum infected participants showed a significant value of IL-1β (p = 0.004). Also, co-infection with these parasites significantly impacted TNF-α (p = 0.002), INF-γ (p = 0.001), and IL-1β (p =0.000). The study provided evidence that Plasmodium spp., Trichuris trichiura, Schistosoma mansoni, Schistosoma intercalatum and co-infections negatively impacted pro-inflammatory cytokines. This confirms that Malaria and Intestinal helminthic infections engage immunity responses.

Discrimination of Phlebotomus perfiliewi transcaucasicus, Ph. major sensu lato and Ph. tobbi (Diptera: Psychodidae) Using Morphometric and DNA Barcoding Methods in the Endemic Foci of Visceral Leishmaniasis in Ardabil Province, North West of Iran

Background: Visceral leishmaniasis, commonly known as kala-azar, and prevalent in more than 70 countries and sev­eral regions of Iran. It is one of the main diseases transmitted by sand flies. In this work, geometric morphometrics and DNA barcoding were employed as novel techniques to enhance the diagnos­tic tools used in this study. Methods: Phlebotomus perfiliewi transcaucasicus, Phlebotomus major s.l., and Phlebotomus tobbi caught from three districts in the Ardabil Province, northwest of Iran. The right wings of 286 female sand flies were analyzed using geo­metric morphometric (GM) tools. Additionally, the COI gene was isolated from each of the three species, amplified using universal primers, and sequenced through the DNA barcoding method for classification. This sequencing data was then formatted to generate morphometric analyses. Results: The landmarks with the most variations were found in sets 10, 12, 13, and 14, whereas the first set's landmarks at 1 and 11, along with those from the second set at positions 2, 3, and 5 exhibited the greatest variations. Analysis of the size and shape variations in the wings indicates the presence of distinct populations (P&lt; 0.05). Furthermore, the DNA barcoding results not only confirmed the findings from the geometric morphometric analysis but also revealed both interspecific and intraspecific distances. Conclusion: This study was the first attempt to assess whether wing geometry morphometrics, combined with DNA barcode techniques, can effectively distinguish the three mentioned species in the studied areas. Furthermore, the identi­fication of Phlebotomus neglectus in this area prompted recommendations for additional research.