North-central Peru Research Articles

Inca Mitmaqkuna, Chaînes Opératoires, and Pottery Production in the Northern Andes

Abstract This article investigates the utility of a chaîne opératoire approach centered on technologies of ceramic production for identifying Inca mitmaqkuna archaeologically. Although early documents suggest that the Inca program of resettlement (mitmaq) was massive in scale, archaeologists have had minimal success in identifying such relocated populations. Here we test a novel approach that focuses on technologies of production and associated tool assemblages used within different communities of practice. Previous studies indicate that the ethnic Cañari of southern Ecuador used a distinctive method of pottery manufacture involving a specific chaîne opératoire and a unique set of production-related tools. According to early sources, the Inca deported Cañari peoples to various sectors of Tawantinsuyu. In this article, we investigate the contemporary manufacturing style of ceramics from the Ancash region of north-central Peru—an area where Cañari mitmaqkuna were purportedly resettled—to determine whether distinctive communities of practice potentially representing relocated communities might be visible. The results of this study suggest that it is possible to identify connections among distant communities of practice via a focus on craft production technologies that, in certain historical contexts, may be construed as evidence for the presence of resettled populations.

Diet During the Late Initial Period (1100–800 BC) in the Chavín Heartland: New Data from Canchas Uckro (North-Central Peru)

During the late Initial Period (c. 1100-800 BC), the Conchucos region of highland Peru witnessed the formation of the ceremonial and “proto-urban” center of Chavín de Huántar (c. 1000-500/400 BC). An important question regarding Chavín de Huántar centers on the nature of its subsistence economy during the time when it was first founded. In this paper, we present new results from zooarchaeological, starch granule, and stable isotope (δ13C and δ15N) analyses to reconstruct diet from Canchas Uckro, a settlement located in Chavín de Huántar's heartland region. Founded c. 1100 BC and abandoned just after 800 BC, Canchas Uckro provides insight into socioeconomic processes during the early phases of Chavín de Huántar. Extant faunal remains suggest deer comprised an important component of the diet, while camelids constitute a minor proportion of the assemblage. Starch granules recovered from the pottery indicate that domesticated cultigens (maize, potato, and manioc) were obtained from different highland production zones. δ13C and δ15N analysis of a sample of human skeletal remains, coupled with Stable Isotope Analysis in R (SIAR) mixing models, demonstrate that C3plants constitute most of the diet, while maize was not intensively consumed. δ13C and δ15N further indicate that deer made up 25-50% of the diet. The results of this study add to a gro wing corpus of data on subsistence practices in the north-central and northern highlands of Peru prior to the widespread adoption of domesticated camelids.

Experience of Tyco & Antamina in the Lightning Performance and Reliability Improvement of 220 kV Transmission Lines in Peru

The Antamina Mine is located in the Antamina valley in the Andes Mountains in the Ancash region of north-central Peru, approximately 270 kilometers north of Lima, Peru. Antamina Mine operations began in late 2001, with an estimated mine life of more than 20 years. The deposit is one of the largest copper-zinc ore bodies in the world. Antamina Mine is electrically connected to five 220 kV transmission lines located in regions with isokeraunic levels from 15 to 90 thunderstorm days per year. In the period from 2002 to 2006, 80 nonschedule outages due to lightning which have affected the process productive have been observed in these lines. Antamina has too a 23 kV overhead shielded distribution ring network in which outages due to lightning have been also observed. In the middle of 2003 Antamina started to work in partnership with Tyco Electronics in order to evaluate the lightning performance of the distribution and transmission lines. With basis in these studies from January 2006 till June 2007, approximately 450 units of line arresters were installed along the distribution network and 265 gapless transmission line arresters (TLA) were installed along the sections of the two 220 kV transmission lines with poorer lightning performance. From October 2006 on only one outage due to lightning was recorded in these two lines, proving the effectiveness of this protection system. This paper presents details about the transmission line lightning performance studies and evaluation carried out by Tyco Electronics and Antamina in this partnership project. Methods to select the arresters characteristics and to define the quantity and the optimized arresters location along the lines are presented. Field experience obtained in these two first years and the line performance / reliability of the system after the TLA application in comparison with the performance before the arresters’ installation are presented and discussed

The Rise of Native Lordships at Pashash, a.d. 200–600, North Highlands of Ancash, Peru

ABSTRACT This article examines the rise of native, segmentary lordships in the highlands of north-central Peru. It reports on new excavations and mapping at the seat of a prehispanic polity, Pashash (Recuay culture), a large hilltop center that developed after the collapse of Chavín civilization. Fieldwork revealed monumental constructions and two special activity contexts radiocarbon-dated to ca. a.d. 200–400: an offering area in a large palatial compound and a room-complex with chambers closed off and sealed with feasting refuse. Multiple lines of evidence help reconstruct a regional picture for the establishment of wealthy local elites. Cultural innovations explicitly link new leaders to roles in defense and warfare, economic production, and early burial cult within a high-status compound. The current data underscore a major break from earlier systems of authority and elite material culture, comprising an organizational pattern that was a precursor to the ethnic polities that predominated in later Andean prehistory.

Slab metamorphism and interface earthquakes in Peru: Implications from three-dimensional hydrothermal variation in the subducted Nazca plate

Convergent plate dehydration is of significance in determining the coupling strength and seismicity activity at variable subduction contacts. Characterized by decadal M > 7.5 devastating earthquakes offshore and a lack of a magmatic arc in north-central Peru, the Peruvian megathrust remains enigmatic in terms of the along-strike heterogeneity of the thermal regime, slab dehydration, and seismotectonics. Hydrothermally controlled petrological metamorphism of multiple facies within the subducted oceanic lithosphere and subsequent fluid channeling and migration lead to fault instability and seismic and aseismic slips on the megathrusts. Based on 3D thermal modeling, we estimate the features of the Peruvian subduction hydrothermal regime. Our results show that (1) the shallow seismogenic zone (M > 7.5 earthquakes) along coastal Peru exhibits high slab dehydration rates and gradients and is associated with fault segmentation and the updip migration of fluids controlling the occurrence of great megathrust earthquakes; (2) the low slab dehydration rate (<0.01 wt%/km) in north Peru contributes to the absent volcanism in north Peru, while the high slab dehydration rate (>0.02 wt%/km) beneath south Peru facilitate the recurrence of magmatic volcanism; (3) the subduction-related slip behaviors at a certain depth resulting from heterogeneous variations in the coupled plate interface are determined by slab dehydration and petrological metamorphism in the subducted Nazca plate. The variation in slab dehydration contributes to the seismotectonic segmentation and slip variation associated with changes in the pore fluid pressure on the subducted megathrust.

Engineering Resilience to Water Stress in the Late Prehispanic North-Central Andean Highlands (~600–1200 BP)

The Andes are defined by human struggles to provide for, and control, water. Nowhere is this challenge more apparent than in the unglaciated western mountain range Cordillera Negra of the Andes where rain runoff provides the only natural source of water for herding and farming economies. Based on over 20 years of systematic field surveys and taking a political ecology and resilience theory focus, this article evaluates how the Prehispanic North-Central highlands Huaylas ethnic group transformed the landscape of the Andes through the largescale construction of complex hydraulic engineering works in the Cordillera Negra of the Ancash Province, North-Central Peru. It is likely that construction of these engineered landscapes commenced during the Middle Horizon (AD 600–1000), reaching their apogee under the Late Intermediate Period (Huaylas group, AD 1000–1450) and Inca (AD 1450–1532) period, before falling into disuse during the early Spanish colony (AD 1532–1615) through a combination of disease, depopulation, and disruption. Persistent water stress in the western Pacific-facing Andean cordillera was ameliorated through the construction of interlinked dams and reservoirs controlling the water, soil, and wetlands. The modern study of these systems provides useful case-studies for infrastructure rehabilitation potentially providing low-cost, though technologically complex, solutions to modern water security.

Changing to remain the same: everyday animal use at ancient Jecosh, north-central Peru

ABSTRACT Studies of faunal discard reveal the everyday use of animal resources in the past. However, taphonomic processes, fragmentation due to butchery, equifinality, and other factors hamper identification of the practices responsible for creating accumulated faunal assemblages. In this paper, we suggest a way to reconceptualize mundane faunal waste from archaeological sites. We apply an everyday life theoretical framework to examine archaeofauna from domestic contexts at Jecosh, a settlement located in the Callejón de Huaylas of north-central Peru. Zooarchaeological analysis of 1,806 bone fragments demonstrate that from the Final Formative through the Late Horizon (ca. 340 BCE - 1630 CE), local camelid husbandry supplemented by deer hunting was a crucial economic resource, enmeshed in Jecosh’s everyday routines. Simultaneously, we argue that the centuries-spanning continuity in animal use was not a static process. Continuity perseveres through changing practices, but the epistemological limits of archaeological analysis restrain their exact identification.

The yuraq haku, or plain mantle: A long tradition of north-central Perú

The haku is a shawl indispensable for depicting the lives of women and men in several districts of the department of Hunuco, in north central Peru. It is used daily in rural tasks and domestic life, and it shines during public festivals as a clear representation of local identity. The skill of the spinners in achieving an exceptionally fine yarn makes the serene beauty of these handsome cloths of a single, even color stand out. Almost transparent, the four-selvage cloth is woven on a backstrap loom of native cotton or of sheep’s wool diverse in hue. The mark of the presence of Spanish obrajes in this region can be observed in tools and practices which, however, do not discard older technological traditions based in ancestral logics. The long history of textile production in the Andes still poses interesting questions. We look more closely to discern aspects of technological knowledge and design. In addition, we examine the significance of practices and functions of contemporary rituality, which provide rich information regarding the modification of socio-cultural contexts. Today, the weaving community is experiencing new demands which give a new life to the mantle, symbolizing their identity to an outside consumer. This contributes to both spiritual and material satisfaction, confirming the space of their cultural values as a fundamental resource.

Population density and size facilitate interactive capacity and the rise of the state.

Radiocarbon summed probability distribution (SPD) methods promise to illuminate the role of demography in shaping prehistoric social processes, but theories linking population indices to social organization are still uncommon. Here, we develop Power Theory, a formal model of political centralization that casts population density and size as key variables modulating the interactive capacity of political agents to construct power over others. To evaluate this argument, we generated an SPD from 755 radiocarbon dates for 10 000-1000 BP from Central, North Central and North Coast Peru, a period when Peruvian political form developed from 'quasi-egalitarianism' to state levels of political centralization. These data are congruent with theoretical expectations of the model but also point to an artefactual distortion previously unremarked in SPD research. This article is part of the theme issue 'Cross-disciplinary approaches to prehistoric demography'.

Pots Speak Volumes: Commensal Politics and Kitchenwares in Early Horizon Nepeña, Peru

This contribution examines feasting strategies in Early Horizon Nepeña (800–200 BC), coastal Ancash, north-central Peru. Through the analysis of volumetric capacities of vessels, we estimate scales of food and drink production at three coeval sites of Caylán, Huambacho, and Samanco. Production scales at those communities are used as proxies for domestic economies, their prosperity and ability to sponsor feasts. We compare and analyze scales of domestic production in light of the complex relationships between the different settlements, including variations in their overall functions and place within regional geopolitics. Results shed light on variations in scales of potential commensal hospitality, size of feasting events, and amplitude of commensal communities. The study informs on foodways in incipient urban contexts and suggests economic asymmetries between households from different settlements. We hypothesize that differences between the three sites shaped local politics and played significant roles in the trajectory of the Early Horizon system.

Huacho and Huaura, charming places in north-central Peru

Huacho and Huaura, charming places in north-central Peru

Two remarkable new species of Argyrophorus Blanchard from the Peruvian high Andes (Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae, Satyrinae).

Two new species of butterflies of the genus Argyrophorus Blanchard (Nymphalidae, Satyrinae)-A. idealis n. sp. and A. rubrostriata n. sp.-are described from the Cordillera Negra in north-central Peru. Both, as indicated by colour patterns, male and female genitalia, are related to Argyrophorus lamna (Thieme) which occurs further east and southwards. The new species occur in open puna grassland at approximately 4000 m. One of them is exceptional because both fore and hindwings are uniform shining silvery, in this respect similar only to the Chilean A. argenteus Blanchard.

Improved connectivity analysis using multiple low-cost paths to evaluate habitat for the endangered San Martin titi monkey (Plecturocebus oenanthe) in north-central Peru

Graph-theoretic evaluations of habitat connectivity often rely upon least-cost path analyses to evaluate connectedness of habitat patches, based on an underlying cost surface. We present two improvements upon these methods. As a case study to test these methods, we evaluated habitat connectivity for the endangered San Martin titi monkey (Plecturocebus oenanthe) in north-central Peru, to prioritize habitat patches for conservation. First, rather than using a single least-cost path between habitat patches, we analyzed multigraphs made up of multiple low-cost paths. This allows us to differentiate between patches connected through a single narrow corridor, and patches connected by a wide swath of traversable land. We evaluate potential movement pathways by iteratively removing paths and recomputing connectivity metrics. Second, instead of performing a sensitivity analysis by varying costs uniformly across the landscape, we generated landscapes with spatially varying costs. This approach produced a more informative assessment of connectivity than standard graph analyses. Of the 4340 habitat patches considered across the landscape, we identified the most important 100, those frequently ranked highly through repeated network modifications, for multiple metrics and cost surfaces. These methods represent a novel approach for assessing connectivity, better accounting for spatial configurations of habitat patches and uncertainty in cost surfaces. The ability to identify habitat patches with more possible routes to other patches is of interest for resiliency planning and prioritization in the face of continued habitat loss and climate change. These methods should be broadly applicable to conservation planning for other wildlife species.

Multianalytical approach to evaluate deterioration products on cement used as consolidant on lithic material: The case of Tello Obelisk, Lima (Peru)

Over years, numerous consolidation formulations and procedures have been developed and tested on lithic materials. It was clearly proven that some consolidation protocols applied on stone monuments years ago were not the best ones, jeopardizing the state of conservation of the intervened artwork. An example of this was the use of modern cement to fasten the Tello Obelisk (Lima, Peru) from its base and to repair a fracture visible in its upper part in the year 2010. The Tello Obelisk is a prismatic granite monolith (2.52m high and 0.32m width) belonging to the archaeological site of Chavin de Huantar in north-central Peru (actually in the National Museum of Archaeology, Anthropology and History of Peru, Lima). According to the historic knowledge, this sculpture is probably a Wanka or an object of religious cult and belongs to the Early Horizon period (900BCE to 200BCE). After some years since this consolidation, the used cement suffered from structural problems, since cracks and cement material loss were observable, compromising its strengthening. This work is focused in the characterization of the cement material used in the 2010 consolidation of the Tello Obelisk. For that purpose, different cement fragments used in its consolidation were analysed in the laboratory by micro-Raman spectroscopy, X-ray Diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (wavelength and energy dispersive) in order to determine the original composition and deterioration products present in the cement, which can be responsible of future problems in such kind of stone monoliths.

Rapid conservation assessment for endangered species using habitat connectivity models

SUMMARYTo avoid extinction of rare species in regions of active environmental change, strategic approaches are needed to manage remaining habitat. When observations of dispersal or metapopulation information are not available, habitat connectivity simulations may offer a valuable alternative source of information to assess threats and evaluate conservation options. For the Critically Endangered San Martin titi monkey (Callicebus oenanthe) in north central Peru, an updated distribution model was generated and land cover in the heavily deforested northern range of the species was mapped. The value of remaining forest fragments was characterized and threats from future land use change were assessed using complementary connectivity models. It is estimated that the species range is less than 14 000 km2. Remote sensing analysis reveals that at least 34% of lowland forest in the northern range has been lost, while nearly 95% of remaining habitat fragments are likely too small to support viable populations and less than 8% of this habitat lies within conservation areas. Areas with the highest modelled connectivity comprise only 10% of the remaining forest in the northern range and small patches may contribute disproportionately to movement; these lands represent opportunities for conservation and reforestation to prevent potentially significant impacts from future mining and urban development. This study prioritized remaining suitable habitat patches using modelled connectivity and local knowledge to gain insight into the status of an understudied species. This approach offers a relatively rapid method to identify potential land use conflicts, and to further focus research and locally appropriate conservation.

Intraspecific Call Variation in the Mimic Poison Frog Ranitomeya imitator

Abstract: Calls are important premating isolating barriers in frogs; therefore, studying intraspecific variation in calls might allow the assessment of patterns of call divergence during the early stages of speciation. Ranitomeya imitator, a species of dart-poison frog (Dendrobatidae), has undergone extensive color-pattern diversification through a Mullerian mimetic radiation, establishing four distinct morphs in north-central Peru (striped, banded, varadero, and spotted). Partial reproductive isolation exists between certain color morphs, although the specific mechanisms responsible for this isolation are poorly understood. We conducted a species-wide analysis of variation in advertisement calls to investigate whether distinct mimetic morphs show advertisement call differences. We found that different color morphs generally show weak or no differences in advertisement calls, with two exceptions. First, call pulse rates differed between the striped and banded morphs, and that difference coincides geograp...

Seaside life in Early Horizon Peru: Preliminary insights from Samanco, Nepeña Valley

Studies of social complexity increasingly acknowledge the crucial role maritime communities play in the constitution of societies. Research at Samanco, a seaside center in the Nepeña Valley, north-central Peru, provides new evidence on coastal life during the Early Horizon (900–200 b.c.) ascribed to early urban developments. Samanco comprises hundreds of structures organized into distinct compounds spread over 30 ha in the northern margin of the Nepeña River, bordering the ecologically rich Samanco Bay. Fieldwork in 2012 mapped and excavated the site, currently under threat by encroaching human developments. Test and block excavations indicate that Samanco was primarily occupied during the Early Horizon and reused later in prehistory as a cemetery. This article presents the 2012 excavations, focusing on the nature of Samanco's Early Horizon occupation and connection with contemporary inland Nepeña centers. Results point towards the presence of a significant residential population and a settlement focused on the processing of agrarian and marine resources, camelid husbandry, and possibly trade.

Synchronous patterns of fluctuations in two stocks of anchovy Engraulis ringens Jenyns, 1842 in the Humboldt Current System

Summary Most of the studies investigating synchrony in fluctuations of abundance of small pelagic fish have been based on catch data only, which do not describe the dynamics of populations as a relative abundance index. In this paper, catch, biomass, recruitment and recruitment rate, were used to compare synchronous changes for two stocks of anchovy (Engraulis ringens) from 1982 to 2004. One is the North Central Peru stock (NCP) and the other is the shared South Peru-Northern Chile stock (SPNC). Correlation analysis demonstrated a significant association between population time series, particularly during the growing phase of the stocks. Thus, the synchronous fluctuation pattern of the two stocks is due to the recovery phase and probably driven by density-independent effects of simultaneous favorable environmental conditions occurring in the two regions. The conclusions were: (i) both NCP and SPNC anchovy stocks are in an overall positive phase of synchrony, (ii) higher correlations in the synchronous pattern of fluctuations occurred during simultaneous increase of biomass, and (iii) short-term fluctuations were negative when the abundance of the stock was lower and/or impacted by El Nino events.

2600-1800 BCE Caral

<p>The Late Archaic Period of North Central Coast Peru witnessed increased El Niño events that transferred flood sediment from coastal valleys into ocean currents forming large barrier beach ridges. As a result, river drainage was impeded, bay infilling and coastal marshes appeared and sediment deposits covered coastal agricultural lands compromising their productivity. Many sites within the Supe Valley, with its ceremonial center at Caral, were based upon economic trade: marine resources from coastal sites exchanged with agricultural products from valley interior sites. Ongoing geomorphic processes compromising the valley economic base are one possible reason for valley site abandonment past 1600 BCE and indicate that dynamic landscape changes are vital research topics necessary to interpret the collapse of Late Archaic Period sites.</p><p>El Periodo Arcaico Tardío en la costa centro norte del Perú experimentó un incremento en los eventos de El Niño los cuales trasladaron sedimentos desde los valles de la costa hacia el Océano Pacífico; posteriormente, corrientes marinas movilizaron estos sedimentos y formaron grandes crestas y barreras de playa. Como resultado de este proceso, se impidió el drenaje de los ríos en la costa, las bahías existentes fueron colmatadas de sedimentos, y se dio la formación de ciénagas y pantanos costeros. Así mismo, sedimentos aluviales cubrieron las tierras agrícolas costeras comprometiendo así su productividad. Muchos asentamientos dentro del Valle de Supe y su centro ceremonial en Caral, estaban basados en el comercio económico: intercambio de recursos marinos entre los sitios costeros y los centros de producción agrícola en los valles interiores. Una de las posibles causas del abandono del sitio en el Valle de Caral después del 1600 AEC, es los procesos geomorfológicos que operaron en la zona y que afectaron directamente la base económica de los asentamientos en los valles; ello indica que los cambios en la dinámica del paisaje son un tema de investigación vital para la interpretación del colapso de los sitios arqueológicos Arcaicos Tardíos.</p>

Species richness and distribution of Neotropical rodents, with conservation implications

The correlates of species richness and conservation status of South American rodents were studied by analyzing the ranges of 791 species (belonging to 159 genera and 16 families). The distribution data (size of each species’ range in km 2 ) and the relative quantity of each macrohabitat type (in km 2 ) were obtained from the Global Mammal Assessment data bank of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and the Global Land Cover 2000, respectively. We excluded mainly island species from analyses but included those species that occur on both islands and the mainland. Habitats were grouped according to seven categories (shrubland, forest, grassland, savannah, wetlands, desert, and artificial). Mean range sizes varied significantly among families, with members of the family Cuniculidae having larger ranges than the species belonging to the rest of the families. Mean range size did not differ significantly between endemic and non-endemic taxa. There was a significant positive relation between total species richness and the availability of habitat types. Specialized species (i.e., those linked to a single habitat type) were found especially in forests, but shrublands and grasslands were also important. IUCN threatened species were distributed in a scattered way, and essentially in forests, grasslands, and shrublands. No region of the Neotropics housed more than two to three threatened taxa, apart from a spot in north-central Peru with five species. The richness of IUCN threatened species was higher in the montane forest ecosystems of the Andes, north-central Peru, than in other areas of South America. There was a mismatch between the hotspot maps for threatened and endemic species. The conservation implications of these patterns are discussed.