Normal Range Of Intelligence Research Articles

Diagnostic evaluation and educational intervention for learning disabilities

Learning disabilities (LD), also known as learning disorders, refers to cases in which an individual experiences lower academic ability as compared to the normal range of intelligence, visual or hearing impairment, or an inability to peform learning. Children and adolescents with learning disabilities often have emotional or behavioral problems or co-existing conditions, including depression, anxiety disorders, difficulties with peer relationships, family conflicts, and low self-esteem. In most cases, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder coexists. As learning disabilities have the characteristics of a difficult heterogeneous disease group that cannot be attributed to a single root cause, they are diagnosed based on an interdisciplinary approach through medicine and education, such as mental health medicine, education, psychology, special education, and neurology. In addition, for the accurate diagnosis and treatment of learning disabilities, the diagnosis, prescription, treatment, and educational intervention should be conducted in cooperation with doctors, teachers, and psychologists. The treatment of learning disabilities requires a multimodal approach, including medical and educational intervention. It is suggested that educational interventions such as the Individualized Education Plan (IEP) and the Response to Invention (RTI) should be implemented.

Comparisons of IQ in Children With and Without Cochlear Implants: Longitudinal Findings and Associations With Language.

To make longitudinal comparisons of intelligence quotient (IQ) in children with cochlear implants (CIs) and typical hearing peers from early in development to the school-age period. Children with additional comorbidities and CIs were also evaluated. To estimate the impact of socioeconomic status and oral language on school-age cognitive performance. This longitudinal study evaluated nonverbal IQ in a multicenter, national sample of 147 children with CIs and 75 typically hearing peers. IQ was evaluated at baseline, prior to cochlear implantation, using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development and the Leiter International Performance Scale. School-age IQ was assessed using the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children. For the current study, only the Perceptual Reasoning and Processing Speed indices were administered. Oral language was evaluated using the Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language. Children in the CI group scored within the normal range of intelligence at both time points. However, children with additional comorbidities scored significantly worse on the Processing Speed, but not the Perceptual Reasoning Index. Maternal education and language were significantly related to school-age IQ in both groups. Importantly, language was the strongest predictor of intellectual functioning in both children with CIs and normal hearing. These results suggest that children using cochlear implants perform similarly to hearing peers on measures of intelligence, but those with severe comorbidities are at-risk for cognitive deficits. Despite the strong link between socioeconomic status and intelligence, this association was no longer significant once spoken language performance was accounted for. These results reveal the important contributions that early intervention programs, which emphasize language and parent training, contribute to cognitive functioning in school-age children with CIs. For families from economically disadvantaged backgrounds, who are at-risk for suboptimal outcomes, these early intervention programs are critical to improve overall functioning.

Prosodic traits in speech produced by children with autism spectrum disorders – Perceptual and acoustic measurements

Background Autism spectrum disorder has been associated with atypical voice characteristics and prosody. In the scientific literature, four different aspects of atypical speech production in autism spectrum disorder have been highlighted; voice quality together with the prosodic aspects pitch, duration and intensity. Studies of prosody in autism spectrum disorder have almost exclusively used perceptual methods. Recently, some studies have used acoustic analyses. In these studies, it has been pointed out that the acoustic differences found are not necessarily perceived as atypical by listeners, which is why it is important to let listeners evaluate perceptual correlates to acoustic findings. The aims of this study were to use both perceptual and acoustic analyses to study prosodic production in children with autism spectrum disorder and to examine if voice and speech characteristics could be used as clinical markers for autism spectrum disorder. Method Eleven children within normal range of intelligence diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder and 11 children with typical development participated. Every child was recorded telling a story elicited with the expression, reception and recall of narrative instrument. Excerpts of one minute were extracted from the audio files creating the material underlying the perceptual ratings and in the acoustic analysis. An evaluation procedure, partly based on a standardized voice evaluation procedure developed for clinical practice in Sweden, was designed for the perceptual judgments and analysis. To capture critical prosodic variables, aspects of prosody based on characteristic features of Swedish prosody, prosodic features known to cause Swedish children with language impairment particular problems and current research of prosodic impairments in children with autism, were used as rating variables. The acoustic analysis was based on the four variables fundamental frequency ( fo) average, fo range, fo variation and speech rate, together with the language production-related variable number of words per utterance. Results In the acoustic analysis, no differences were found with regards to fo-related variables or speech rate. However, the children in the autism spectrum disorder-group produced significantly more words per utterance than the typically developing children. The perceptual analysis showed no differences between the groups. Only three children with autism spectrum disorder were correctly identified as such. The narrative ability of these children, according to scores on the narrative assessment profile, was poorer than that of the other eight children. They were also more atypical in fluency and in speech rate. Given the small sample, the results should be interpreted with caution. Conclusions and implications The only difference in prosodic production discovered in the acoustic analysis, namely that children with autism spectrum disorder used more words per utterance than the children in the comparison group, was not detected in the perceptual assessment. This implies that it was not perceived as atypical by expert listeners. The results indicate difficulties in using voice and speech characteristics as markers of autism spectrum disorder in clinical settings. The correct identification of some of the children as having autism spectrum disorder or not also indicates that some children with autism spectrum disorder have a prosodic production sufficiently ‘atypical’ in combination with a limited ability to tell stories to be perceived.

Vision Research Literature May Not Represent the Full Intellectual Range of Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Sensory, in particular visual processing is recognized as often perturbed in individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). However, in terms of the literature pertaining to visual processing, individuals in the normal intelligence range (IQ = 90–110) and above, are more frequently represented in study samples than individuals who score below normal in the borderline intellectual disability (ID) (IQ = 71–85) to ID (IQ < 70) ranges. This raises concerns as to whether or not current research is generalizable to a disorder that is often co-morbid with ID. Thus, the aim of this review is to better understand to what extent the current ASD visual processing literature is representative of the entire ASD population as either diagnosed or recognized under DSM-5. Our recalculation of ASD prevalence figures, using the criteria of DSM-5, indicates approximately 40% of the ASD population are likely to be ID although searching of the visual processing literature in ASD up to July 2016 showed that only 20% of papers included the ASD with-ID population. In the published literature, the mean IQ sampled was found to be 104, with about 80% of studies sampling from the 96–115 of the IQ range, highlighting the marked under-representation of the ID and borderline ID sections of the ASD population. We conclude that current understanding of visual processing and perception in ASD is not based on the mean IQ profile of the DSM-5 defined ASD population that now appears to lie within the borderline ID to ID range. Give the importance of the role of vision for the social and cognitive processing in ASD, we recommend accurately representing ASD via greater inclusion of individuals with IQ below 80, in future ASD research.

Do individuals with autism lack a sense of humor? A study of humor comprehension, appreciation, and styles among high school students with autism

Humor helps to build interpersonal bonds and allows individuals to feel closer. Previous research has generally claimed that individuals with autism have difficulty with interpersonal communication and social contacts, but there has been no such consensus regarding the sense of humor among individuals with autism. To address this issue, the present study aimed to compare the comprehension of, appreciation for, and preferred styles of humor between students with and without autism. The samples consisted of 177 high school students with autism and 177 control high school students. Every participant was within the normal range of intelligence. The gender ratio and age ratio of the two groups were maintained through pairwise sampling. The research tools were a questionnaire regarding the comprehension of and appreciation for nonsense and incongruity-resolution jokes, and the Humor Styles Questionnaire. The results show that the students with autism did not comprehend the nonsense jokes and incongruity-resolution jokes as well as the control students did, but they felt greater enjoyment when reading nonsense jokes. The students with autism preferred the nonsense jokes which is featured of less logical reasoning and using homophones for double-meaning. The tendencies toward affiliative humor, self-enhancing humor, and self-defeating humor among the students with autism were not as strong as those among the control students. Only the tendency toward aggressive humor was equal between two groups, showing that the students with autism still have sense of humor but tend to use hostile humor style. It is suggested to investigate the tendency of hostile humor in people with autism, and to provide them with affiliative humor to break the interpersonal stalemate experienced by individuals with autism.

Neurodevelopmental, educational and behavioral outcome at 8 years after neonatal ECMO: a nationwide multicenter study

Reporting neurodevelopmental outcome of 8-year-old children treated with neonatal extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). In a follow-up study in 135 8-year-old children who received neonatal ECMO between 1996 and 2001 we assessed intelligence (Revised Amsterdam Intelligence Test), concentration (Bourdon-Vos test), eye-hand coordination (Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration) and behavior (Child Behavior Checklist and Teacher Report Form). Intelligence fell within normal range (mean IQ 99.9, SD 17.7, n = 125) with 91 % of the children following regular education. Significantly more children attended special education (9 %) or received extra support in regular education (39 %) compared with normative data. Slower working speed (χ(2) = 132.36, p < 0.001) and less accuracy (χ(2) = 12.90, p < 0.001) were found on the Bourdon-Vos test (n = 123) compared with normative data. Eye-hand coordination fell within the normal range (mean 97.6, SD 14.3, n = 126); children with congenital diaphragmatic hernia scored lowest but still normally (mean 91.0, SD 16.4, n = 28). Mothers (n = 117) indicated more somatic and attention behavior problems; teachers (n = 115) indicated more somatic, social, thought, aggression and total problems compared with normative data. Mothers indicated more somatic problems than teachers (p = 0.003); teachers reported more attention problems than mothers (p = 0.036; n = 111). Eight-year-old children treated with neonatal ECMO fall in the normal range of intelligence with problems with concentration and behavior. Long-term follow-up for children treated with neonatal ECMO should focus on early detection of (subtle) learning deficits.

Long-Term Cognitive Outcomes After Pediatric Stroke

This study assessed neurocognitive and neurologic outcomes of children with neonatal and childhood strokes. Twenty-one children with neonatal (mean age, 6.86 years) and 10 children with childhood (mean age, 8.21 years) strokes, identified via the Estonian Pediatric Stroke Database (1995-2006), participated. A developmental neuropsychologic assessment was used for neurocognitive outcomes, and the Paediatric Stroke Outcome Measure for neurologic outcomes. Neuromotor impairment was evident in 62% of children with neonatal strokes, and in 70% of children with childhood strokes. Compared with control subjects, children with strokes exhibited worse attention, language, memory, and sensorimotor functions. The sensorimotor domain comprised the most impaired neurocognitive area, whereas executive functions remained intact in both stroke groups. A well-preserved executive function may account for the normal range of intelligence in children with strokes. More severe impairment in neurocognitive skills was evident after neonatal strokes, and the visuospatial domain was more impaired than in children from the childhood group. Prognoses were worse after left hemisphere strokes associated with epilepsy. Our results on emerging neurocognitive deficits in several areas underline the importance of neuropsychologic testing and the follow-up of children with pediatric strokes.

Parental retrospective assessment of development and behavior in Asperger syndrome during the first 2 years of life

Development and behavior during the first 2 years of life was assessed retrospectively by the parents to 23 adolescents and young adults with Asperger syndrome and 13 typically developing adolescents and young adults. The groups were matched on chronological age and the participants were within the normal range of intelligence. The questionnaire, symptoms of autism before the age of 2 (SAB-2) comprised seven areas: contact and social activity, responses to sensory perceptions, communication and language/speech, food/feeding and sleep, play and fixations/rituals, movements and motor skills, and development and behavior. An eighth area of possible early suspicions was also part of the questionnaire. There were significant differences between the groups in all the areas and that the parents in many cases were well aware of anomalies in their children's behavior at an early age. Food/feeding and sleep and contact and social activity were found to be the areas that caused most concern. The SAB-2 was also judged to be a valid and reliable instrument for retrospective assessment of infants.

Supported Employment for Adults with High Functioning Autism and Asperger's Syndrome

The prevalence of autism spectrum disorders is currently on the rise nationwide. Approximately one fifth of all individuals with autism and related disorders function within the normal range of intelligence, and may, in fact, possess superior intelligence in certain areas. Despite this, many individuals with high functioning autism and Asperger's syndrome are not competitively employed. The challenges that such individuals experience in securing and maintaining employment are often just as severe as those for individuals with more limited intellectual functioning. Characteristics of high functioning autism and Asperger's syndrome are described, and recommendations for how rehabilitation counsellors and other professionals can best support the employment pursuits of individuals with the disorders are provided.

Deficiencies in School Readiness Skills of Children With Sickle Cell Anemia

Patients with sickle cell anemia often express myriad clinical signs and symptoms that affect their life-style and academic performance. Certain psychoeducational and psychosocial factors have been shown to influence the academic achievement of older patients with sickle cell anemia. However, studies evaluating the school readiness skills of younger children have not been published. To determine whether sickle cell anemia delays preschool development in children aged 4 to 6 years, we studied 10 affected children and 10 normal subjects matched for age, sex, and race. School readiness was evaluated by the Pediatric Examination of Educational Readiness (PEER), which assess a child's performance in areas of developmental attainment such as visual input, verbal output, and short-term memory. The presence of associated movements (minor neurologic signs) and other areas of behavior such as selective attention, activity level, adaptive behavior, and processing efficiency are also observed. The children with sickle cell anemia scored significantly lower than their normal counterparts in several parameters of the PEER. The McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities, a standardized psychometric test, showed that these children with sickle cell anemia were within the normal range of intelligence. Magnetic resonance imaging done on three children with sickle cell anemia who scored lowest on the PEER revealed no cerebrovascular infarcts. These preliminary studies demonstrate significant differences in school readiness skills between children with sickle cell anemia and normal subjects.

Long-term cerebral effects of CNS chemotherapy in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

Fifteen 7-16-year-old patients, treated in 1981-1984 for acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) in first complete remission, were studied. As a central nervous system prophylaxis, all the children were treated with repeated methotrexate (MTX) instillations, but none were irradiated. The study protocol included magnetic resonance (MR) and a battery of neuropsychological tests. Small, punctate white-matter lesions were found by MR in eight children, probably minor vascular lesions. All the children were within normal intelligence range with a mean total WISC-R IQ of 109. Minor neuropsychologic problems were found in two patients, while one child showed a more extensive specific learning disorder in school.

Levels of Reflective Judgment among Noncollege Trained Adults

The present study assessed the influence of life experiences upon reasoning among three known groups with no college background. Sample 1 is from rural USA, had limited life experiences and were learning independent living skills (all are within the normal range of intelligence). Sample 2 includes working women (semi-skilled, skilled and mid-management) from rural USA with a high school education or less. Sample 3 is from urban Brazil and was made up of nontraditional students working in a high school equivalence program. Samples 2 and 3 were judged to have greater conflict in life experience. Three ill-defined issues were used in a structured interview with a modified reflective judgment format. Samples 2 and 3 scored relatively high on Kitchener and King's Reflective Judgment scale, and on some issues their scores were comparable to college juniors reported in previous studies. The results are consistent with Piaget's notion that density of cognitive conflict provides the condition for cognitive growth.

Moderate Prenatal Alcohol Exposure: Effects on Child IQ and Learning Problems at Age 7 1/2 Years

This longitudinal, prospective, population-based study examined the long-term effects of moderate prenatal alcohol exposure on 482 school aged children. Maternal reports of alcohol use obtained during pregnancy were significantly related to child IQ, achievement test scores, and classroom behaviors in second grade children, even after statistical adjustment for appropriate covariates. Consumption of two drinks per day or more on the average was related to a 7-point decrement in IQ in 7-year-old children even after statistically adjusting for appropriate covariates. Low paternal education and more children in the household were identified as environmental factors exacerbating the effect of prenatal alcohol exposure on child IQ. Learning problems were associated with the alcohol "BINGE" pattern of five or more drinks on at least one occasion. This study shows that alcohol use patterns within the social drinking range can have long lasting effects on IQ and learning problems in young school aged children. These patterns should not be interpreted as biologic thresholds. It should also be noted that these are group effects of prenatal alcohol exposure, not necessarily predictable in the individual child, and that for the most part these children were functioning within the normal range of intelligence.

The Phenomenology of Schizophrenia Occurring in Childhood

Thirty-five children, aged 4 to 13 (X = 9.54), meeting strict DSM-III criteria for schizophrenia, are described. The subjects were diagnosed using a new semistructured interview. All were in the normal range of intelligence (mean IQ = 94) and free of neurological disorders. Characteristic auditory hallucinations were present in 80% and delusions in 63% of the sample. The mean age of onset of psychotic symptoms was 6.9 years. Premorbid histories of attention deficit, conduct disturbance and/or developmental abnormalities were common. The nature and content of psychotic symptoms varied with developmental stage. The phenomenological presentation of the sample was similar to previous studies of young schizophrenic children.

A survey of 22 individuals with Prader-Willi syndrome in New South Wales.

Twenty-two individuals with Prader-Willi Syndrome in New South Wales were surveyed. The results show that males were diagnosed at a significantly earlier age than females and suggest a recent trend towards earlier diagnosis. The advantages of early diagnosis are discussed. In those in whom cytogenetic studies had been performed, 47% were found to have a deletion involving chromosome 15q11-13. Profound neonatal hypotonia had been present in all cases. Obesity became apparent between 1.5 and 10 years (mean = 3.8 years). Facial dysmorphism was reported in 83% and acromicria in 100%. Sixty-two per cent of subjects were regarded as less pigmented than first degree relatives. Cognitive assessments were performed on nine subjects. Two (22%) were functioning in the normal range of intelligence. Behaviour problems, both food-related and non-food-related, were present in the majority and placed considerable stress on the family caring for the individual with Prader-Willi Syndrome.

Prospective intellectual testing in children with brain tumors.

Sixteen children with brain tumors received prospective intellectual evaluations with a follow-up of 2 to 5 years. All patients were treated with surgery and radiation and 5 received chemotherapy. Most of the children remained within the normal range of intelligence, but intelligence quotient (IQ) scores declined over time. Learning disabilities were present in 15 of 16 children after radiation, and 11 required special educational services. Risk factors associated with decline in IQ appear to be young age at time of radiation and adjuvant chemotherapy.

Changes in Medical Practice Towards the Child with Spina Bifida: Implications for Schools

ABSTRACT Up to 15 years ago, Spina Bifida Cystica and its complications was the second most common physical handicap in childhood, but has declined in incidence, occurring about 5.9/10,000 births in the UK. Similar reductions have been noted in other parts of the world. Several different causes are responsible for the fewer numbers of children, but changes of surgical management known as selective treatment is particularly important. The small number of children initially denied surgery tend to be severely physically handicapped and often intellectually impaired, but most children treated without delay are physically less disabled and often within the normal range of intelligence. Such improvements in status has resulted in more children attending ordinary schools though some may have subtle learning difficulties which should be systematically sought for. There will be a corresponding decrease in the number attending special schools.

Urban second grade children: a profile of good and poor readers.

Physical, neurodevelopmental, psychoeducational, and child history characteristics were analyzed in second-grade, inner-city children identified as good and poor readers. The children were basically healthy with few findings of physical or neurological abnormalities, but there were significant group differences in the prevalence of “soft signs” and in all psychological and educational measures. Good readers showed a relatively even cognitive profile within the normal range of intelligence. On nonverbal cognitive tests, poor readers scored within the low-average intellectual range, although scores on verbal tests were substantially lower. The neurodevelopmental, language, cognitive, and educational profile of the poor readers suggests that, as a group, they are learning disabled. While environmental deprivation may affect their reading achievement in an adverse manner, the assumption that it is the determining factor is not justified. These children require the same identification, evaluation, and follow-up educational services as their more socioeconomically advantaged peers, who are scrutinized for dyslexia or learning disabilities when they show difficulties with beginning reading skills.

Deficits in space-form perception in patients with sex chromosome mosaicism (45,X/46,XY).

Several studies have shown that selective deficits in space-form perception are found in patients with Turner's syndrome, associated with 45,X or a structural anomaly of an X chromosome. The authors sought to determine whether significant deviations from normal or from Turner's syndrome (relative to space perception) occur when a Y chromosome is present. The four patients studied, aged between 4 1/2 and 24 years, had a karyotype of 45,X/46,XY and a phenotype ranging from sexual ambiguity at birth to typical Turner's syndrome. Although all were in the normal intelligence range (IQ 80 or above), on testing they demonstrated below-average ability in tasks involving visualization of spatial forms, and their drawings were generally immature. The results suggest that patients with sex chromosome mosaicism X/XY may have similar deficits in space-form perception and orientation to those previously demonstrated in Turner's syndrome.

The significance for intelligence of differences in birth‐weight and health within monozygotic twin pairs

This paper presents further evidence to demonstrate the existence of intra-uterine effects within the normal range of intelligence. The argument is then extended further to estimate the effects of organic factors in the environment that are also pathogenic for intelligence. The combination of these and intra-uterine effects is found to be a substantial part of the variance associated with environmental factors. Various implications of these factors are discussed.