Nonword Reading Research Articles

Morphological and Phonological Awareness-Based Intervention in French Canadian University Students With Developmental Dyslexia and Dysgraphia.

Despite appropriate speech-language therapy interventions and school and university accommodations, college and university students with developmental reading (specific reading learning disorder [SRLD]) and spelling (specific spelling learning disorder [SSLD]) difficulties continue to experience difficulties in adulthood, notably for reading fluency, spelling to dictation, and reading comprehension. This study aimed to investigate the effects of a morphological and phonological awareness intervention on word recognition, spelling, and reading comprehension skills in university students with SRLD and SSLD. Participants underwent a 3-week intervention focusing on phonological and morphological awareness. The results revealed significant improvements in morphological awareness, nonword reading, irregular word reading, text-level spelling, and reading comprehension after the intervention. These findings show that interventions targeting phonological and morphological awareness may enhance the literacy skills of university students with SRLD and SSLD. However, other factors, such as individual characteristics and the intervention context, may have also influenced the present results. This highlights the importance of offering speech pathology interventions in higher educational settings to better support adult students with learning difficulties.

Comparing the Performance and Growth of Linguistically Diverse and English-Only Students on Commonly Used Early Literacy Measures.

In the context of increasing legislative emphasis on universal screening for reading problems, the accurate and equitable assessment of English learners (ELs) remains a pressing concern. This study examines how kindergarten and first-grade students' performance on early literacy measures in English is affected by their English proficiency. In this paper, we report on performance on measures of deletion, picture naming, sentence repetition, letter naming fluency, word and nonword reading, and rapid object naming across the school year. Drawing on a diverse and representative sample of 3,064 students across 31 Californian schools, we addressed two main research questions. First, we compared the performance of English-only students (EO) to ELs and to students identified as English-proficient (EP) but speaking another language at home. Findings indicated that ELs consistently scored lower than their EO and EP peers across all assessments. Second, we compared growth patterns. While most measures showed similar growth rates, a significant performance gap remained for ELs (p < .001). Notably, EP students displayed distinct performance patterns, outperforming EO students in most tasks, except for those demanding more vocabulary. Our findings emphasize the importance of tailored assessment approaches and consideration of English proficiency when interpreting ELs' performance.

Yoga as a Fatigue Intervention for Children Who Are Deaf and Hard of Hearing

Purpose: This study evaluated the effects of a single session of yoga on the fatigue and reading skills of children who are deaf and hard of hearing (DHH). Method: The study included nine school-aged children who are DHH. Following a 3-hr assessment, the participants self-reported fatigue and completed sight word and nonword reading. They then participated in a 20-min yoga session, followed by a postsession self-reporting of fatigue and completion of alternative sight words and nonwords. Results: Analyses revealed that most participants experienced a decrease in fatigue post-yoga session, resulting in a small effect size. There was no effect noted for reading of sight words and nonwords; however, most participants read more nonwords post-yoga session than prior to the yoga session. Conclusions: Yoga has potential to positively impact fatigue experienced by children who are DHH. Future research evaluating the effects of multiple sessions of yoga on fatigue is needed. Supplemental Material: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.29066816

On the role of stems and prefixes in reading complex nonwords: Evidence from individuals with and without acquired dyslexia

ABSTRACT The role of stems and prefixes in complex nonword reading was investigated in unimpaired readers and five individuals with acquired dyslexia. All participants completed a reading aloud task (and the reading impaired individuals also completed a repetition task) with four different types of nonwords: prefix + stem (refront), non-prefix + stem (tefront), prefix + non-stem (refrint), non-prefix + non-stem (tefrint); and prefixed and non-prefixed filler words. The unimpaired readers responded fastest to nonwords containing two morphemes (prefix + stem), slower to nonwords with one morpheme (non-prefix + stem; prefix + non-stem), and slowest in the non-morphemic control condition (non-prefix + non-stem), providing evidence for the added benefit of prefixes and stems during reading. The five reading impaired individuals showed facilitatory morpheme effects across both tasks, but stem-effects were more robust than affix-effects. There was no difference between the prefixed and non-prefixed words in any of the data. The impact of morphological structure on nonword reading and repetition points to the important role of morphemes across different modalities..

A validation study of the Martin and Pratt nonword reading test

The Martin and Pratt Nonword Reading Test (‘Martin &amp; Pratt’) is an Australian-normed assessment of nonword reading accuracy. The current study was conducted to examine whether this test still validly and accurately estimates the decoding skills of primary school-aged children, despite its norms having been collected in 1996. To address these questions, reading assessment data were collected from 176 Australian students (3 independent schools) from Years 1 through 6. Strong correlations between the Martin &amp; Pratt and similar measures were observed, although the standard scores generated were consistently higher than other tests. This pattern of results indicated that the test is valid but overestimates nonword reading ability.

Feasibility of real-time fMRI neurofeedback for rehabilitation of reading deficits in aphasia.

Reading impairments, a common consequence of stroke-induced aphasia, significantly hinder life participation, affecting both functional and leisure activities. Traditional post-stroke rehabilitation strategies often show limited generalization beyond trained materials, underscoring the need for novel interventions targeting the underlying neural mechanisms. This study investigates the feasibility and potential effectiveness of real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) neurofeedback (NFB) intervention for reading deficits associated with stroke and aphasia. We enrolled left-hemisphere stroke survivors in the subacute recovery period and healthy controls in an fMRI NFB intervention study focusing on increasing activation within the left supramarginal gyrus (SMG), a critical region for reading supporting orthography-phonology conversion. Preliminary findings demonstrate that stroke participants showed significant improvements in reading comprehension and phonological awareness, as evidenced by marked gains on the Reading Comprehension Battery for Aphasia (RCBA) and a phonology two-alternative forced choice test. Functional MRI results indicated that stroke participants exhibited increased activation from day 1 to day 3 of NFB training within the left SMG and the broader left hemisphere reading network, particularly during challenging nonword reading tasks. Healthy controls also showed increased activation during NFB regulation and reading tasks, but these changes were outside the traditional reading network, involving regions associated with cognitive control, reward anticipation, and learning. In both stroke participants and healthy controls, we also found changes in dynamic functional connectivity of multiple resting state networks from before to after NFB training. Although preliminary, this research contributes to the development of biologically informed interventions for reading deficits in aphasia, representing an early step towards improving post-stroke rehabilitation outcomes. Future randomized controlled trials are necessary to validate these findings by including a sham NFB control group within a larger participant sample. The study was preregistered on ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT# NCT04875936.

Phonological Processing and Word and Non-Word Reading Ability among Farsi-Speaking Children with Cochlear Implants, Hearing Aids and Normal Hearing

Background and Aim: Individuals who suffer Hearing Loss (HL) from inefficient auditory input will experience difficulty in phonological processing and reading. This study aimed to investigate the phonological processing and word and non-word reading abilities of Farsi- speaking children with Cochlear Implants (CIs), Hearing Aids (HAs) and Normal Hearing (NH). Methods: Sixty-three children with severe to profound HL and NH who were in the first grade participated. Phonological Awareness (PA) and Phonological Working Memory (PWM) tests were used to assess phonological processing. Word and non-word reading abilities were assessed through reading and dyslexia tests reading abilities, phonological processing as well as the correlation between them were compared among three groups. Results: The PA, PWM and reading abilities of NH children were significantly different from children with HL (p&lt;0.01). Correlations between words and non-words reading ability and some phonological processing tasks were observed in each of the three groups. Phonemic awareness for all three groups and intra-syllabic awareness for children with HA and NH were the most important predictors for word and non-word reading abilities. Conclusion: Hearing impairment had a critical effect on phonological processing as an important factor in word and non-word reading. Keywords: Cochlear implant; Hearing aid; Reading; Phonological processing; Farsi-speaking children

Reading Comprehension and Fluency Gaps among public Rural Primary Students: the Case of South Pemba region in Zanzibar

This study investigates the gaps in reading comprehension and fluency among rural primary students in the South Pemba region of Zanzibar. It examines students' performance in non-word reading and text comprehension, identifying the underlying causes of their difficulties and proposing potential solutions. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, the research involved cross-sectional quantitative surveys and qualitative observations. Approximately 100 students participated in a Non-Word Reading Test and a Comprehension Test, designed to evaluate their phonemic awareness, decoding skills, and comprehension abilities. Classroom observations provided insights into teaching practices and the learning environment. Statistical analyses were applied to the quantitative data, while thematic analysis was used for the qualitative data. The findings revealed significant deficiencies in reading skills, with poor fluency and comprehension levels among the students. Notably, 69% of learners could decode fewer than 15 non-words, and 92% of attempts were incorrect. The students struggled with reading comprehension, particularly in answering inferential questions, highlighting weaknesses in phonemic awareness and fluency development. The study emphasizes critical literacy deficits and suggests strategies, such as promoting explicit phonemic awareness and enhancing teacher education, to improve literacy outcomes. These insights can guide policymakers and educators in addressing literacy challenges in rural Zanzibar.

Control energy detects discrepancies in good vs. poor readers' structural-functional coupling during a rhyming task

Control energy detects discrepancies in good vs. poor readers' structural-functional coupling during a rhyming task

Getting it Right from the Start (GIRFTS): protocol for a stepped-wedge cluster randomised controlled trial of a school-based framework to improve children’s oral language and reading outcomes

IntroductionStrong oral language and reading skills are important for child development. The response to intervention (RTI) framework supports schools to apply evidence-based practices and interventions to proactively meet the learning needs of all students and identify and support students at risk of learning difficulties. Getting it Right from the Start (GIRFTS) aims to implement a codesigned RTI framework in the first 2 years of formal schooling (foundation and grade 1) to improve oral language and reading skills. GIRFTS includes an implementation evaluation.Methods and analysisGIRFTS is a stepped-wedge cluster randomised trial conducted in Victoria, Australia, over 3 years. Clusters are primary schools. The intervention is to implement tiers 1 and 2 of the RTI framework into foundation and grade 1 according to RTI principles. The primary outcome is reading comprehension by the start of grade 2. Secondary outcomes include listening comprehension, word and non-word reading and phonological awareness. An implementation evaluation will also be conducted with the study to understand schools’ RTI implementation process and enablers and barriers to implementation. Strategies used by schools to overcome implementation challenges will also be investigated.Ethics and disseminationThis trial was approved by the Royal Children’s Hospital Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC/58832/RCHM-2019). Investigators will communicate the results to stakeholders, collaborators and participating schools and teachers through presentations and publications.Trial registration numbersISRCTN91164066, ACTRN12622000146796.

Comparing the Effectiveness of Two Kinds of Reading Interventions on Reading Outcomes in Third to Fifth Grade Farsi Speaker Students with Dyslexia: An Exploratory Study.

This research marks the exploration into comparing the effectiveness of two reading interventions in improving reading outcomes for third to fifth-grade Farsi-speaking students with dyslexia. In this randomized control trial study, twenty students in Tehran were randomly assigned to a multi-component group and a comprehension-based intervention group, each receiving 36 sessions of 45 minutes. The effectiveness of the interventions was evaluated using adjusted mean differences with a one-way ANCOVA. The results revealed the comprehension-based intervention's superior effect size across most outcomes, except for the letters string. The effect size was large for word reading 0.93 (CI -0.002 to 1.85), medium for phoneme deletion 0.67 (CI -0.23 to 1.5), small for text comprehension 0.25 (CI -0.62 to 1.13), and trivial for both rhyme identification 0.1 (-0.77 to 0.98) and non-word reading 0.11 (CI -0.76 to 0.98). The multi-component intervention had a greater effect size on letters string than the other intervention, although it was small -0.21 (CI -1.09 to 0.66). The study concluded that comprehension-based intervention was more effective for Farsi-speaking students with dyslexia in grades 3-5, emphasizing the need for diverse intervention approaches to address their specific needs.

Pronunciation of Vowel Digraphs in Nonwords: A Replication and Extension.

In English, the pronunciation of a vowel digraph can vary; for example, ea is pronounced /ɛ/ in bread but /i/ in beach and /eɪ/ in break. We investigated participant-level effects on the pronunciation of ambiguous vowel digraphs in nonwords (e.g., yeath) using standardized test measures of six reading-related skills in 80 young adults. We employed both an established written task and set of nonword stimuli and a spoken version of the task with the same stimuli. We largely replicated the previously reported pattern of preferred nonword pronunciations in both the written and spoken versions of the task. Generalized linear mixed-effects model analyses revealed that individual differences in phonological memory, spelling knowledge, and word reading efficiency contributed to pronunciation choice beyond item-level effects. Overall, taken together with the results of item-level analyses, our findings are consistent with models and theories in which specific reading-related skills, intralexical context, and interlexical pronunciation knowledge influence ambiguous vowel digraph pronunciation in nonword reading in fluently reading young adults.

The relationship between receptive vocabulary and word and nonword reading skills in monolingual and language minority bilingual children in Italy across primary school grades

ABSTRACT The role of children's receptive vocabulary knowledge in word and nonword reading (decoding) in an orthographically transparent language is debated. Moreover, we have little understanding of how the role of vocabulary might differ between monolingual children and bilingual children from immigrant families (or language minority bilingual children (LMBC)) at different stages of reading development. This study examined the relation of receptive vocabulary to word and nonword reading accuracy and speed in 140 monolingual and bilingual students attending Grades 1, 3, or 5 in Italy. Both receptive vocabulary and reading performance were assessed using standardized tests in Italian. Regression models showed that for monolingual Italian children receptive vocabulary was related to word reading accuracy and speed in Grade 1 and word reading accuracy in Grade 5. In the LMBC group, receptive vocabulary was related to word and nonword reading accuracy and speed in Grade 1, to word reading accuracy in Grade 3, and to word reading speed in Grade 5. These findings suggest that vocabulary knowledge supports reading even in the earlier stages of reading development in a language with transparent orthography and underscore the importance of strengthening and assessing LMBC's receptive vocabulary for the adequate development of their reading skills.

Evaluating the impact of vocabulary instruction on oral vocabulary, phonemic awareness and nonword reading

Vocabulary teaching has traditionally focused on word meanings to aid reading comprehension, however evidence also suggests that vocabulary knowledge influences phonemic awareness and word reading. Vocabulary instruction concentrating on the sound structure of new words alongside meaning (combined sound-meaning vocabulary instruction) improves vocabulary for learners with speech and language difficulties. Emerging research suggests it may deliver similar results as a classroom strategy for young children. Researchers have questioned whether combined instruction would additionally enhance phonemic awareness and phonic decoding. A teaching intervention with 273 children aged 5–6 in the United Kingdom compared meaning-based instruction, combined instruction and usual classroom instruction (age-matched controls) over 24 weeks with three testing points. A daily vocabulary lesson incorporating evidence-based principles was delivered by classroom teachers. After intervention both instructional groups performed significantly higher than controls on taught vocabulary, and all groups performed equally on phonemic awareness and nonword reading. Delayed post-test results require more cautious interpretation due to the lack of a hierarchical design. Combined instruction resulted in the highest taught vocabulary and phonic reading outcomes; phonemic awareness in the combined condition was significantly higher than controls. Results tentatively suggest that combined instruction is an inclusive approach for whole-class use in early schooling.

Speechreading, Phonological Skills, and Word Reading Ability in Children

Purpose: The purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between speechreading ability, phonological skills, and word reading ability in typically developing children. Method: Sixty-six typically developing children (6–7 years old) completed tasks measuring word reading, speechreading (words, sentences, and short stories), alliteration awareness, rhyme awareness, nonword reading, and rapid automatized naming (RAN). Results: Speechreading ability was significantly correlated with rhyme and alliteration awareness, phonological error rate, nonword reading, and reading ability (medium effect sizes) and RAN (small effect size). Multiple regression analyses showed that speechreading was not a unique predictor of word reading ability beyond the contribution of phonological skills. A speechreading error analysis revealed that children tended to use a phonological strategy when speechreading, and in particular, this strategy was used by skilled speechreaders. Conclusions: The current study provides converging evidence that speechreading and phonological skills are positively related in typically developing children. These skills are likely to have a reciprocal relationship, and children may benefit from having their attention drawn to visual information available on the lips while learning letter sounds or learning to read, as this could augment and strengthen underlying phonological representations.

Appraising Linguistic and Reading Impairments in Kannada-Speaking Persons With Central Alexia.

Alexia is an acquired condition resulting in impaired abilities to comprehend and/or read aloud written scripts secondary to lesions in the brain involved in reading processes. Just as how linguistic aspects are multi-faceted in persons with aphasia (PWAs), the reading impairments also vary extensively across each PWA depending on the type and nature of the language deficits. Each language has its unique linguistic properties. Whether the impairment is in the spoken form or written form, the dissociations in both aspects across the linguistic distinctions are paramount. Given the diverse orthographic features of Kannada, alongside inquiries into the impairment in oral language skills among individuals with acquired reading difficulties, the study emphasizes distinguishing the concurrent language processes associated with reading impairment. The study aimed to explore the relationship between spoken language and reading abilities in Kannada-speaking post-stroke survivors with acquired alexia. The study recruited 15 Kannada-speaking adults with complaints of reading impairment post-ictus through convenient sampling. The enrolled participants included both males and females with a mean age of 42.2 years (SD=15.58; range=20-68) with 16 years of formal education. The study performed three primary investigations; a) linguistic, b) oral reading, and c) reading comprehension. Linguistic tasks entailed semantics, syntax, and phonological tasks. Oral reading entailed real word and non-word reading tasks. Reading comprehension tasks entailed single-word level, sentence-level, and paragraph-level tasks. Results of overall domain performance across linguistics, oral reading, and reading comprehension revealed superior performance in linguistics (M=71.77, SD=19.18) followed by reading comprehension (M=70.55, SD=24.10) and oral reading (M=41.55, SD=24.66), which was significant (p<0.05). Performance in phonology was weakest (M=58.06, SD=12.44) compared to syntax (M=71.13) and semantics (M=85.33) on comparing PWAs' abilities within the linguistic domain. Reading abilities were compared across oral reading and reading comprehension, which significantly varied (p<0.05), and reading comprehension abilities were superior (M=72.65, SD=24.10). Task-specific variabilities were significant (p<0.05) in both oral reading and reading comprehension, wherein, real word reading (M=58.22) and comprehension at a single level (M=80.22) were better performed. Results of correlation analysis revealed semantics (r=0.494, p<0.05) and phonology (r=0.428, p>0.05) were highly positively correlated to oral reading abilities. Syntax (r=0.412, p>0.05), and semantics (r=0.377, p>0.05) were strongly positively correlated to reading comprehension abilities. The study has convincingly shown that performance on reading-related tasks reflects the functionality of central semantic, phonological, and syntactic processing elements. The literate adults routinely interact with both spoken and written language and a comprehensive assessment framework of language processing must encompass both modalities (linguistic and reading) for individuals with alexia, specific to Indian languages. Owing to the transparent writing system of the Kannada language, a multimodal phonological and lexical-based reading treatment may prove to be beneficial in remediating reading impairments among adult post-stroke survivors.

Effectiveness of the Use of Virtual Reality Rehabilitation in Children with Dyslexia: Follow-Up after One Year.

Dyslexia is a common learning disorder that hinders reading fluency and comprehension. Traditional treatments can be tedious for children, limiting their effectiveness. This study investigated the one-year effects of rehabilitation treatment with a virtual reality rehabilitation system (VRRS) on children with dyslexia. Twenty-four children were divided into control (CG) and experimental (EG) groups. The CG underwent conventional neuropsychological treatment (CNT), while the EG underwent VR neurorehabilitation training (VRNT) using the VRRS. Neuropsychological evaluation was conducted before treatment, after six months, and again after one year for both groups. Compared to the control group, children who received VR training showed significant improvement in reading skills, especially in non-word reading and reading speed, even after one year without further VR intervention. VRRS can improve treatment adherence and minimize symptoms by offering engaging activities for children. These findings suggest VRRS may be a valuable tool for dyslexia rehabilitation with long-lasting effects.

The influence of orthographic depth on early grade students’ reading of words and non-words in Sidaama and English

The purpose of this study was to analyse word and non-word reading among early-grade students of Sidaama and English, with a specific emphasis on the difference in orthographic depth between the two languages. The research has a convergent mixed methods design applying reading skills tests, interviews with teachers, and classroom observations. The results of the quantitative and qualitative analysis showed that student scores in Sidaama, which has a transparent orthography, indicated greater accuracy in both word and non-word reading compared to English with its deep orthography. Overall, students read words more correctly than non-words in both languages. Especially in English, the scores for non-words were very low. The results from the reading tests suggest that orthographic differences between the two languages caused challenges for the students when decoding words and non-words. The teachers confirmed the influence of these challenges in interviews, and students were observed struggling to read in class.

Looking beyond literacy and phonology: word learning and phonological cue use in children with and without dyslexia

IntroductionThis study investigated whether children with and without dyslexia differ in word learning and whether phonological cues to word class play a role. If children with dyslexia have difficulties with implicit learning, they might be less sensitive to such cues.MethodsA group of 89 Dutch primary school children from Grades 3 to 6 participated in a word learning experiment, consisting of children with dyslexia (n = 44) and typically developing children (n = 45). Test items were four monosyllabic ‘verb-like' nonwords (e.g., voek) and four bisyllabic ‘noun-like' nonwords (e.g., banijn). They were presented as novel verbs or nouns in a two word sentence frame (e.g., “I voek” or “a voek”), paired with pictures of unfamiliar actions or objects. Nonwords were either consistent (e.g., “I voek,” “a banijn”) or inconsistent (e.g., “I banijn,” “a voek”) with word class. The word learning experiment consisted of a repetition, identification, and naming phase.ResultsChildren with dyslexia showed lower word learning outcomes in the naming phase. However, phonological cues did not affect word learning in either group. Regression analyses indicated that phoneme awareness, receptive vocabulary, and nonword reading were predictors of word learning for all children.DiscussionThese findings indicate that Dutch children with dyslexia have more difficulty in recalling novel words, fitting in with their phonological difficulties. Phonological cues to word class did not contribute to word learning in either group.

Relationship Between Resting State Functional Connectivity and Reading-Related Behavioural Measures in 69 Adults

Abstract In computational models of reading, written words can be read using print-to-sound and/or print-to-meaning pathways. Neuroimaging data associate dorsal stream regions (left posterior occipitotemporal cortex, intraparietal cortex, dorsal inferior frontal gyrus [dIFG]) with the print-to-sound pathway and ventral stream regions (left anterior fusiform gyrus, middle temporal gyrus) with the print-to-meaning pathway. In 69 typical adults, we investigated whether resting state functional connectivity (RSFC) between the visual word form area (VWFA) and dorsal and ventral regions correlated with phonological (nonword reading, nonword repetition, spoonerisms), lexical-semantic (vocabulary, sensitivity to morpheme units in reading), and general literacy (word reading, spelling) skills. VWFA activity was temporally correlated with activity in both dorsal and ventral reading regions. In pre-registered whole-brain analyses, spoonerisms performance was positively correlated with RSFC between the VWFA and left dorsal regions (dIFG, superior parietal and intraparietal cortex). In exploratory region-of-interest analyses, VWFA-dIFG connectivity was also positively correlated with nonword repetition, spelling, and vocabulary. Connectivity between the VWFA and ventral stream regions was not associated with performance on any behavioural measure, either in whole-brain or region-of-interest analyses. Our results suggest that tasks such as spoonerisms and spellings, which are both complex (i.e., involve multiple subprocesses) and have high between-subject variability, provide greater opportunity for observing resting-state brain-behaviour associations. However, the complexity of these tasks limits the conclusions we can draw about the specific mechanisms that drive these associations. Future research would benefit from constructing latent variables from multiple tasks tapping the same reading subprocess.