Non-cancer Health Risk Research Articles

Health risk in children to fluoride exposure in a typical endemic fluorosis area on Loess Plateau, north China, in the last decade.

Excessive and inadequate intake of fluoride may cause adverse effects in children, such as dental caries and dental fluorosis. This study reports the results of monitoring fluoride concentrations in drinking water from an endemic fluorosis region during the ten-year period (2008 through 2017). The fluoride concentration had a range of 0.03-9.42mgL-1 (mean=0.55±0.01mgL-1). Approximately 10%, 1.3% and 0.06% children are at risk for dental decay, dental fluorosis and skeletal fluorosis, respectively. Probabilistic risks for children were assessed and the fluoride endemic areas were marked by GIS mapping system. On several water consumption points, the hazard quotient (HQ) values for children were higher than 1, indicating potential non-cancer health risks due to fluoride exposure. The results of this study will help governmental agencies to develop better policies for protecting children from exposure to fluoride.

Contamination and health risk assessment of heavy metals in PM10 in mining and smelting basin Bor in Serbia

The objective of this study was to investigate concentration and spatial distribution of four heavy metal elements (As, Cd, Pb, and Ni) in PM10 in town near mining and smelting basin, Bor (Serbia). Human health risks for each heavy metal were assessed using a human exposure model. Results showed that air does not contain significant heavy metal elements concentrations at all three measurement points in Bor. The spatial distribution pattern of all tested metals coincided with the locations of mining area and the most populated part of town (domestic sources and traffic), as well as wind direction. The contamination evaluation indicated that As, Cd, Ni and Pb in air originated from anthropogenic sources-industry, heating and traffic. The non-cancer health risk assessment showed that ingestion was the primary exposure route for all metals and that Pb, and As were the main contributors to non-cancer risks in both children and adults. HI values were calculated for children (HI = 2.34–4.15E-06), indicating that children will likely experience higher health risks compared with adults (HI = 2.67–4.73E-07). The non-cancer risks posed by all studied heavy metal elements and the cancer risks posed by As, Cd, and Ni to both children and adults in Serbia fell within the acceptable range.

Toxicity trends in E-Waste: A comparative analysis of metals in discarded mobile phones

Mobile phones and various electronic products contribute to the world’s fastest-growing category of hazardous waste with international repercussions. We investigated the trends in potential human health impacts and ecotoxicity of waste mobile phones through quantitative life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) methods and regulatory total threshold limit concentrations. A market-dominant sample of waste basic phones and smartphones manufactured between 2001 and 2015, were analyzed for toxicity trends based on 19 chemicals. The results of the LCIA (using USEtox model) show an increase in the relative mass of toxic materials over the 15-year period. We found no significant changes in the use of toxic components in basic phones, whereas smartphones contained a statistically significant increase in the content of toxic materials from 2006 to 2015. Nickel contributed the largest risk for carcinogens in mobile phones, but the contributions of lead and beryllium were also notable. Silver, zinc and copper contents were associated with non-cancer health risks. Copper components at 45,818–77,938 PAF m3/kg dominated ecotoxicity risks in mobile phones. Overall, these results highlight the increasing importance of monitoring trends in materials use for electronic product manufacturing and electronic-waste management processes that should prevent human and environmental exposures to toxic components.

Health Risk Assessment through Incorporation of Dempster–Shafer Structure and Fuzzy Numbers within the Same Framework

It is always most important to accrue knowledge on the features of each and every existing data, information and model parameters in risk assessment. It is observed that most frequently model parameters, data, information are fouled with uncertainty due to lack of precision, deficiency in data, diminutive sample sizes. In such situations, fuzzy set theory or Dempster–Shafer structure (DSS) can be explored to represent uncertainty. More often, both type of uncertainty representation theories coexist in health risk assessment and need to amalgamate. This paper presents two algorithms to combine DSS and fuzzy numbers (FNs) of different shapes.• The algorithms deal with the combination of DSS with fuzzy focal elements of different types and different fuzzy numbers of various types and shapes within the same framework. • Finally, non-cancer human health risk assessment is carried out under this setting. • Results are obtained in fuzzy numbers at different fractiles.The approaches presented here have the ability to be used in any mathematical model which represents real-world problems, in which model parameters are tainted with uncertainty, where representations of uncertain model parameters are DSS and fuzzy numbers with different shapes and types.

Severe Nitrate Pollution and Health Risks of Coastal Aquifer Simultaneously Influenced by Saltwater Intrusion and Intensive Anthropogenic Activities.

Groundwater quality is critical for regional sustainability and human well-beings in coastal regions, because groundwater is an important water resource for these areas facing water scarcity. Anthropogenic activities might induce nitrate pollution, whereas saltwater intrusion could decrease coastal groundwater discharge into sea to subsequently cause the persistent accumulation of pollutants in coastal aquifer. Rare information is available on the nitrate pollution of coastal aquifer under simultaneous influences of saltwater intrusion and intensive anthropogenic activities. This study investigated the distribution, pollution, possible sources, and potential health risks of groundwater nitrate of typical coastal aquifer simultaneously influenced by saltwater intrusion and intensive anthropogenic activities. The average/maximal concentration of groundwater nitrate was 173.70/824.80mg/L, indicating the severe accumulation of nitrate in the coastal aquifer. Concentrations of nitrate in coastal groundwater were much higher than those in adjacent seawater. Groundwater salinization did not have significant effects on nitrate distribution. Groundwater in 87.6% of sampling sites was not suitable for drinking based on nitrate evaluation criterion. Anthropogenic activities might induce nitrate pollution in approximately 94.7% of sampling sites. Sources, including sewage and manure, soil nitrogen, and ammonium fertilizers, contributed to groundwater nitrate with concentration > 100mg/L in the study area, whereas sewage and manure were the predominant source affecting groundwater nitrate in 97.5% of sampling sites. Groundwater nitrate exerted unacceptable noncancer health risks for infants, children, teenagers, and adults in more than 87.6% of the study area. Infants and children were the most susceptibly influenced by groundwater nitrate. It is urgent to take effective measures for controlling groundwater nitrate pollution in the study area.

Heavy metal content and health risk assessment of commonly patronized herbal medicinal preparations from the Kumasi metropolis of Ghana.

To address the question of whether users of herbal products (HPs) are exposed to harmful contaminants, we evaluated six HPs mostly patronized in Kumasi for heavy metal contamination and assessed the health risk associated with their use. This study is one of the first safety evaluation studies on finished multiherbal products in the region. Three antimalarial, two antidiabetic and one antihypertensive HPs were selected after a mini-survey and coded randomly as HP A-F. The HPs were acid digested for quantitative analysis of heavy metals using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer. Hg quantification was carried out using cold vapour atomic absorption spectroscopy. The cancer risk estimation values for the carcinogenic metals ranged between 1.54 × 10-9 to 3.73 × 10-4 and were all within acceptable limits. The non-cancer health risk evaluation revealed that, some of the products pose health risk to consumers. The estimated daily intake (EDI) for As in HPF was 2.48 × 10-4 mg/kg/day compared to the reference limit of 1.67 × 10-4 mg/kg/day. HPF also had high hazard index (HI) of 5.70 (HI >1) in children as compared to 1.68 (HI >1) in adults showing a 3.4 folds increase in the health risk among the former. The six polyherbal products exhibited carcinogenic risk within acceptable limits. Although, the non-carcinogenic risk assessment of products HPA to HPE suggests safety, this can only be ascertained after further characterization of their health risks in detailed chronic toxicity studies. The high HI for product HPF suggests health risk for consumers of this product.

A NON-CANCER HEALTH RISK TO THE POPULATION OF VLADIKAVKAZ UNDER CHRONIC INHALATION EXPOSURE OF TECHNOGENIC EMISSIONS TO ATMOSPHERIC AIR

A non-cancer health risk to the population of Vladikavkaz inhabitants exposed to chronic inhalation of emissions from non-ferrous metals processing facilities and motor vehicles was assessed. A high risk to the population health caused by industrial and motor vehicles emissions was estimated, whereas the cardiovascular system was most severely affected by negative impact of the technogenic emissions. The necessity to conduct a complex of preventive measures to avoid risk of negative effects of technogenic emissions on the population health was established. As well as the necessity to apply modern methods to calculate the non-cancer health risk to the population of Vladikavkaz under chronic inhalation exposure of technogenic substances in the lower layers of atmospheric air was proved.

Assessing the health risks of consuming 'sachet' alcohol in Acoli, Uganda.

The increased mortality rate among the Acoli people of northern Uganda is anecdotally blamed on excessive consumption of cheap and widely available sachet-packaged alcohol in the region. In this paper, we quantify this perceived association by determining statistically the health risks associated with ingesting 20 heavy metals in 17 popular spirits products consumed in Acoli. Thirteen of these products were industrially packaged in sachets (locally known as ‘sachet,’ waragi, arege or moo lyec) and four were locally produced Lira-Lira spirits from Bolo, Awere and Teso Bar in the region and Nsambya in southern Uganda. A Scottish whisky purchased in San Diego (USA) was our reference. Risk assessment was performed according to standardized protocols developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). Our results show that a strong correlation indeed exists between health risks and ingestion of spirits in Acoli. At >2.5 sachets/day for 240 day/year over a lifetime for example, the risk of developing cancer due to exposure to As, Pb and Cr alone is 1 in 102,041. This estimate excludes ethanol, a known carcinogen, and 17 heavy metals also studied due to lack of their cancer slope factors. The primary non-cancer related health risk factor in all samples tested is ethanol with unacceptably high health index of four. The Lira-Lira spirits, with 100–6000% copper above the US EPA limit for intake by oral ingestion in water, would be the ‘cleanest’ without copper and at par with the Scottish whisky. Collectively, we find that no amount of alcohol consumed in Acoli is safe. Preventive measures are therefore recommended to reduce mortality in Acoli in particular, and in Uganda in general. These measures should include public education, better public policies, creating productive economic activities other than brewing alcohol, and social activities that engage people away from drinking.

An Inter-disciplinary Approach to Evaluate Human Health Risks Due to Long-Term Exposure to Contaminated Groundwater Near a Chemical Complex

Potentially toxic elements (PTEs) are known to threat human health due to exposure to contaminated groundwater. Some of these PTEs can lead to long-term carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risks. The Estarreja Chemical Complex (ECC), NW Portugal, has had an intense industrial activity since the early 1950s, which lead to high levels of soil and groundwater contamination. Local populations traditionally rely on groundwater for human and agricultural uses. Although rehabilitation measures have been implemented for the last 20 years, groundwater contamination levels remain high for some PTEs, whose concentrations may be several orders of magnitude higher than human consumption. Two groundwater-sampling campaigns were conducted showing the temporal evolution of groundwater quality and allowing for the calculation of non-cancer and cancer risks due to exposure to PTEs by the ECC-surrounding population, considering groundwater ingestion and dermal contact as exposure pathways. Hair and urine PTE contents were collected during of the second sampling groundwater campaign and were used as biomonitoring to validate the exposure of local population to PTEs. The results show that As is the contaminant with highest non-cancer and cancer health risks for the exposed population, presenting high values particularly in Veiros, Beduido and Pardilho localities. The most groundwater-contaminated areas coincided with the localities in which inhabitants exhibit higher hair and urinary PTE concentrations. Hair samples show high levels of As, Hg and Ni, while urine samples show high levels for Al, As, Cd, Hg, Pb, Ni and Zn are elevated in localities close to the ECC. Urine and hair proved to be suitable to evaluate short- and long-term exposure to PTEs, and are strongly correlated groundwater PTEs concentrations.

Cancer and non-cancer health risk assessment associated with exposure to non-methane hydrocarbons among roadside vendors in Delhi, India

This study estimates the cancer and non-cancer health risk among the roadside vendors in Delhi, the capital city of India. Air samples of selected NMHCs and their derivatives were collected from four different sites (one traffic intersection, one industrial, and two residential) in Delhi and were analyzed on Gas Chromatograph (GC) to obtain their atmospheric concentrations. At each site, a survey among the roadside vendors was also conducted to obtain information about their bodyweight and exposure to outdoor ambient air. The study reveals that hazard quotient of 1,3-butadiene is greater than one at all the sites, with its maximum value occurring at the industrial site. The major contributors to the workplace cancer risk (WCR) are found to be 1,3-butadiene and chloroform. The overall WCR is observed to be the highest (9.4 × 10−4) at the traffic intersection site, followed by the industrial site (7.0 × 10−4). Cancer incidence data and the population data are also used to estimate the growth of cancer risk in Delhi from 2009 to 2016. Comparison of the WCR values of the four sites with the cancer risk estimated from the cancer incidence data shows that NMHCs and their derivatives are significant contributors to the overall cancer risk in Delhi. Our results suggest that NMHCs and their derivatives need to be given due consideration in the National Cancer Control Programme of India.

PCDDs, PCDFs and PCBs in locally produced foods as health risk factors in Silesia Province, Poland

Dioxins (PCDDs), furans (PCDFs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) emitted into the environment can accumulate in foods and become a significant source of dietary exposure for consumers of these compounds. This study aims to assess the dietary exposure of the residents in a rural area of the Silesia region in southern Poland to PCDDs, PCDFs and PCBs. The goal is to estimate cancer and non-cancer health risks due to the consumption of foods of animal origin. The area has relatively higher concentration of PCDDs, PCDFs and PCBs in the air in comparison to large industrialized cities of the Silesia province. Three popular foods of animal origin, namely free-range chicken meat, free-range chicken eggs, and cow milk produced in the farms were used. The control samples were the same foods from the local grocery stores. Two exposure scenarios were considered: Firstly that residents consumed free-range foods and secondly that the food items were purchased from stores in the study area. In the first scenario, exposure to concentrations of PCDDs, PCDFs, and dioxin-like PCBs (dl-PCBs) yielded evidence of elevated cancer and non-cancer risks. The hazard quotient (HQ) was 71.3 for non-cancer risk and 7.5 × 10−3 for cancer risk. The health risk from exposure to PCDDs, PCDFs and dl-PCBs in the second scenario was 6.9 × 10−4 and HQ = 0.8, respectively. Implementation of educational activities in the study area is needed to increase the resident's awareness of the risks associated with the emissions of chlorinated persistent organic pollutants to the environment, including aspects such as the main sources of the emission and how to avoid exposure to these compounds.

Heavy metal contamination and health risks of indoor dust around Xinqiao Mining Area, Tongling, China

In this study, the concentrations and health risks of heavy metals (Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni, Co, Cd, and Cr) in indoor dust are investigated in the vicinity of the Xinqiao mining area, Tongling, China. Results indicate that heavy metals except Co were clearly enriched in indoor dust. Especially Cd was extremely enriched, followed by Zn, Cu, and Pb. However, no significant regional differences (p > 0.05) were found in other elemental contents aside from Cu. Statistical analysis revealed that metal elements except Co were presumed to originate primarily from mining activities. Health risk assessment indicated that the hazard quotients and hazard indices of all studied metal elements were less than 1 and thus posed no potential noncancer health risks to adults and children. Moreover, the cancer risks of Ni, Cr, Cd, and Co were within acceptable ranges, implying no cancer risk to local residents; however, the noncarcinogenic risk of Pb and the carcinogenic risk of Cr and Cd warrant close attention.

A comprehensive study on spatio-temporal distribution, health risk assessment and ozone formation potential of BTEX emissions in ambient air of Delhi, India

The hazardous air pollutants like benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene (BTEX) are considered as toxic because of their role in ozone formation and adverse effects on human health. Owing to this, the present study was carried out at six spatially distributed sites in Delhi from November 2017- June 2018. Activated charcoal tubes were used to collect samples of BTEX and were further analyzed using GC-FID. The minimum BTEX concentration was found at institutional site (9.94 μg/m3) and maximum at roadside site (103.12 μg/m3) with the average of 46.66 μg/m3. Also, the levels of BTEX were 1.18–1.74 times higher during rush hours as compared to non-rush hours. The high T/B ratio (2.26–3.41) observed is the indication of the traffic-originated sources of emission. The cancer risks calculated for benzene at probability 0.50 ranged as 1.29E-06 – 1.80E-05, whereas 4.09E-06 – 3.40E-05 at probability 0.95, which were higher than the acceptable value of 1.0E-06. The non-cancer health risks in terms of hazard index were observed less than unity i.e. within acceptable limit. The total ozone formation potential (OFP) was obtained as 207.51 ± 123.40 μg/m3 with maximum potential by toluene. Such high levels of BTEX, cancer risks and OFP obtained in the study especially at roadside and connectivity hub are harmful for people residing near these areas, and also to large commuters, who are exposed to such emissions during travelling.

Risk assessment of toxicants on WHO TobReg priority list in mainstream cigarette smoke using human-smoked yields of Korean smokers

Recently, the World Health Organization Study Group on Tobacco Product Regulation (WHO TobReg) announced a priority list of 38 toxicants among the more than 7000 chemicals found in cigarette smoke, building upon previous lists of toxicants in cigarette smoke. Here, we conducted a comprehensive study on the quantitative exposure and risk characterization of these priority toxicants in mainstream cigarette smoke listed by the WHO TobReg. The human-smoked toxicant yields estimated from spent cigarette butts of a total of 361 smokers using the part-filter method (PFM) were applied to current exposure and risk estimation for the first time. The PFM can estimate human-smoked yields of toxicants using smokers’ maximum mouth-level exposure. The human-smoked yield of each toxicant was converted to systemic uptake by considering bioavailability. Risk indicators—including the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR), cumulative ILCR, hazard quotient (HQ), hazard indices (HIs), and margin of exposure (MOE)—were estimated from the systemic uptake of toxicants combined with Korean exposure factors by gender and age group as well as for total smokers. It was demonstrated that cigarette smoking results in significant cancer and non-cancer health risks. A sensitivity analysis showed that the human-smoked toxicant yield is one of the most important contributors to risk level variations. Our risk estimation suggested that previous risk assessments might have ignored or underestimated the uncertainty of risk assessment. In conclusion, we assessed the risk level of the 38 toxicants on the priority list developed by the WHO TobReg and provided a Korean-specific priority list for the regulations on the emission of cigarette smoke.

Differences in the uptake and bioconcentration of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane by eight vegetable cultivars and their health risk assessments

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is not easily degraded in soils, which will pose a threat to human health. We investigated the differences of eight vegetables' capacity to take up DDT, removing DDT from soil, and tolerating DDT (monitoring the responses of growth, root morphology and photosynthesis of vegetables to DDT). These vegetables included Chinese mustard (two genotypes, B.jf and B,jm), napa cabbage (two genotypes, B.coz and B.coc) and Bok choy (four genotypes, B.cz, B.cq, B.cs and B.chg). The results demonstrated that 5 mg kg−1 DDT did not display significant effects on the growth of most vegetables in this study. As compared to the control, 5 mg kg−1 DDT significantly increased the shoot and root biomass, the fine root numbers, and the fine root ratio for the genotype of B.chg. However, 5 mg kg−1 DDT exposure showed a negative effect on the shoot growth of two genotypes of napa cabbage. In general, 5 mg kg−1 DDT did not significantly affect the photosynthesis and root morphology of most vegetables in this study. Consuming these vegetables had a low non-cancer health risk, but showed a high cancer health risk. In addition, among the eight vegetables, B.chg accumulated less DDT in the edible parts and had low values of HRnon-cancer and HRcancer for consuming these vegetables containing DDT. Planting these vegetables might promote the degradation of DDT reducing its residual amount in soil.

Exposure to heavy metals released to the environment through breastfeeding: A probabilistic risk estimation

Toxic heavy metals released into the environment through various anthropogenic activities, raising concerns over their potential adverse effects on human health and the environment. Biological monitoring studies are of great value in toxicological research for estimation of such health effects. The aim of this study was to evaluate the concentrations of lead (Pb), arsenic (As), and chromium (Cr) in the breast milk of urban mothers in Hamadan city, Iran and the accompanying health risk to infants. A total of 100 lactating mothers were recruited from public health care centers in Hamadan city and breast milk samples were collected at 2, 6, 8, and 12 months postpartum. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS) has been used to measure target heavy metal concentrations. The median breast milk concentrations of Pb, As, and Cr were 41.90, 0.50, and 3.95 μg/L, respectively. The highest levels of Pb were observed after two months of delivery (with the mean of 96.69 μg/L and median of 45.70 μg/L). Up to 94% of the breast milk samples exceeded the WHO limit suggested for lead contamination of breast milk (<5 μg/L). The breast milk As and Cr contents were above the limit of detection (LOD) in 19% and 76% of samples, respectively. Unacceptable non-cancer health risk levels or hazard quotient (HQ) were found for Pb and As in 61% and 10% of the samples, respectively. Nevertheless, HQ from Cr was <1.0 for 100% of breastfeeding infants. Finally, our results indicated that there may be a potential risk of toxic metals, especially lead, for infants in Hamadan via the consumption of mothers' breast milk.

Heavy metal pollution and health risk assessment of road dust on selected highways in Düzce, Turkey

In this study, road dust samples from state roads D-100 and D-655 passing through the city of Düzce, Turkey were analyzed using ICP-MS to ascertain heavy metal pollution, and also to evaluate possible risks to human health. Some pollution indices such as enrichment factors (EFs), geo-accumulation index (Igeo) and integrated pollution index (IPI) were calculated to determine the pollution levels of metals. According to the mean EF values, Zn, Mo, and Pb exhibited significant enrichment, while enrichment of As, Cd, Sn, and Sb was very high. The Igeo values for Pb, Ba, Mo, Zn, Cu, Mn, and Cr indicated an extremely polluted environment whereas those for Sc, V, Fe, As, Cd, Sn, and Sb indicated moderate to strong pollution of the environment. The IPI values of Pb and Mo were also at extreme levels due to vehicle traffic related contamination along the roads. Analysis of the road dust matrix indicated the mixed effect of the fossil fuel combustion for residential heating and industrial activities within the studied area as well as traffic originated pollution. Cluster analysis revealed that sampling area has been influenced by mainly three pollution sources: (i) traffic and industrial activities, (ii) polluted soil due to accumulation, and (iii) fossil fuel combustion. According to human health risk assessment studies, a level lower than 1.0 has been determined to be a non-cancer health risk. However, a total hazard index level of 1.4 poses a significant non-cancer health risk for children. Fortunately, a total lifetime cancer risk value of 8.8 × 10−8 was found, and this is considered safe.

Estimation and Human Health Risk Assessment of Organochlorine Pesticides in Raw Milk Marketed in Zagazig City, Egypt.

Milk is nearly a perfect natural food and is widely used by all segments of our population especially for infants and the elderly. Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) have been used worldwide, particularly in many African countries as in Egypt for the control of pests. OCPs are characterized by their bioaccumulation in the environment, especially in the food chain, where they find their way into the human body. The objectives of this study were initially to estimate the residual concentrations of different OCPs in three kinds of fresh and raw milk from different animals (cattle, buffalo, and goat) marketed in Egypt. Additionally, human dietary intake and risk assessment of OCPs were calculated. The tested OCPs included pp-DDT and its metabolites pp-DDD and pp-DDE; hexachlorohexanes (HCHs) including α HCH and γ HCH; heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide; aldrin and endrin; chlordane, methoxychlor, and hexachloride benzene. The recorded results revealed that goat and buffalo milk samples had the highest incidence of OCPs' contamination (75% for each), while this percentage was 50% in cow's milk. The mean values of ΣOCPs were 317.83 ± 34.11, 605 ± 50.54, and 1210.57 ± 99.55 (ppb/ww) in the examined cattle, buffalo, and goat milk samples, respectively. All examined OCPs were within the maximum permissible limits (MPLs) set by World Health Organization with only 10% of goat milk samples exceeding this MRL. The estimated daily intake, noncancer, and cancer health risk assessment of the tested OCPs revealed the potential cancer risk especially among children consuming goat's milk. The public health importance of such OCPs was discussed.

Assessment of ecological and human health risks of metals in urban road dust based on geochemical fractionation and potential bioavailability

Metals are one of the primary pollutants in the urban environment that pose adverse ecological and human health impacts. Therefore, the accurate quantification of the risk posed by metals is essential for developing effective risk management strategies to safeguard the urban environment. This study assessed the ecological and human health risks of six metals, commonly present in road dust by improving the original risk indices based on their potential bioavailability characteristics. The bioavailability of metals was determined by considering their distribution between the different geochemical phases of exchangeable, reducible, oxidisable and residual. The results of the modified risk analysis indicated that the road dust poses a low ecological risk in most of the study sites. According to the present situation, the non-cancer risk of individual metals for both, children and adults followed the decreasing trend of Pb > Cu > Cr > Zn > Ni > Cd. This study also found that depending on the particle size ranges, the potential of multiple metals being able to cause non-cancer health risk was low at most study sites. In terms of cancer health risk, Cr present at most of the study sites was found to be within the cancer threshold limit, even though the Cr content and the bioavailable fractions were relatively low.

Assessment of the inhalation risks associated with working in printing rooms: a study on the staff of eight printing rooms in Beijing, China.

The concentration of pollution directly determines the occupational health risk, and the exposure time is an important influencing factor. We evaluated the inhalation risks of working in a printing room. Eight units with centralized printing rooms were randomly selected. Formaldehyde, ozone, benzene, toluene, xylene, and fine particulate matter were detected by spectrophotometry, gas chromatography, and direct reading instruments, respectively. The U.S. EPA inhalation risk assessment model was used to assess cancer and non-cancer risks. The formaldehyde inhalation cancer risk value was 1.35-3.45 × 10-6, which is greater than the limit of 1 × 10-6, suggesting a risk of squamous cell carcinoma. The benzene inhalation cancer risk in five of the rooms was 1.09-4.65 × 10-6, which is greater than the limit of 1 × 10-6, suggesting a risk of leukemia. In terms of non-cancer risk, in five of the rooms, the hazard quotient (HQ) was > 1 (range 1.99-4.69) due to benzene pollution, suggesting a risk of reduced lymphocyte count. In one room, due to benzene and xylene pollution, the HQ was > 1, suggesting a risk of lymphocyte count drop and motor coordination impairment. Collectively, the study concludes that staff members of printing rooms are exposed to both cancer and non-cancer occupational health risks.