No-model Control Research Articles

Faithful replication of foraging techniques along cultural transmission chains by chimpanzees and children

Observational studies of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) have revealed population-specific differences in behavior, thought to represent cultural variation. Field studies have also reported behaviors indicative of cultural learning, such as close observation of adult skills by infants, and the use of similar foraging techniques within a population over many generations. Although experimental studies have shown that chimpanzees are able to learn complex behaviors by observation, it is unclear how closely these studies simulate the learning environment found in the wild. In the present study we have used a diffusion chain paradigm, whereby a behavior is passed from one individual to the next in a linear sequence in an attempt to simulate intergenerational transmission of a foraging skill. Using a powerful three-group, two-action methodology, we found that alternative methods used to obtain food from a foraging device ("lift door" versus "slide door") were accurately transmitted along two chains of six and five chimpanzees, respectively, such that the last chimpanzee in the chain used the same method as the original trained model. The fidelity of transmission within each chain is remarkable given that several individuals in the no-model control group were able to discover either method by individual exploration. A comparative study with human children revealed similar results. This study is the first to experimentally demonstrate the linear transmission of alternative foraging techniques by non-human primates. Our results show that chimpanzees have a capacity to sustain local traditions across multiple simulated generations.

Children's Resistance to Deviation: Multiple Behavioral Models

Abstract The inhibitory and disinhibitory effects of conforming and deviating models, respectively, were studied with first- and second-grade girls. After receiving a prohibition not to open a toy box, girls saw either a single model or two models conform to or deviate from a similar prohibition on videotape. A no-model control group was also employed. Results supported previous research in demonstrating the disinhibitory effects of a single deviating model. First graders deviated more quickly than did second graders. The inhibitory effects of a conforming model were not demonstrated. Multiple modeling conditions did not produce significantly greater effects than did single modeling conditions. Results are discussed in the context of possible floor effects and methodological considerations.

Model Similarity Effects on Motor Performance

This experiment extended previous findings on whether model characteristics affect attentional subprocesses and mediate performance changes in an observational learning setting. College women (N = 75) were randomly assigned to groups in a 2 x 2 (Cueing by Model Similarity) factorial design or to a no-model control group. To assess attentional differences, subjects were cued either prior to or subsequent to a demonstration as to model characteristics, and model similarity was manipulated by having subjects view a similar or dissimilar model. All subjects saw the same videotaped demonstration, only their perceptions of model characteristics were manipulated. Subjects performed 20 performance trials in Phase 1 with outcome knowledge of results (KR) and, after a 1-rnin rest period, were given 10 more performance trials without KR in Phase 2. The results from Phase 1 indicated that subjects performed better after watching a model they perceived to be similar than after one they perceived as dissimilar. Phase 2 data indicated that all subjects were performing similarly in terms of outcome scores but that the control group was using a different strategy than the demonstration groups. The investigation found support for performance differences dependent on model characteristics and pointed to the need to examine more than outcome scores when assessing observational learning effects.

Learning to Communicate from Models: Children Confuse Length with Information

WHITEHURST, GROvER J.; SONNENSCHEIN, SUSAN; and IANFOLLA, B. J. Learning to Communicate from Models: Children Confuse Length with Information. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1981, 52, 507-513. Young children tend to become more redundant and informative speakers after listening to nonredundant and informative speakers. This research investigated whether this is due to the child minimizing effort by producing easier redundant messages, or whether it is due to the child's equation of longer messages with better messages through failure to discriminate the informativeness of messages. 6 modeling conditions involved orthogonal manipulations of the length and informativeness of the messages to which children responded as listeners. Later in the speaker's role, children who had heard long messages improved their communication accuracy (compared to a no-model control), while children who had heard short messages showed no change. No effect of message quality was observed: A model using uninformative long messages caused the child to improve as much as a model using informative long messages. 5-yearolds are sensitive to the length but not to the informativeness of the messages they hear.

The Effects of Model Similarity and Model Talk on Self-efficacy and Muscular Endurance

This study was designed to determine if observing a similar or dissimilar model who makes varying self-efficacy statements influences an observer's efficacy expectations and, in turn, muscular endurance performance. Females (N = 150) were randomly assigned to groups in a 2 × 4 × 3 (model similarity by model talk by trials) factorial design or to a no-model control group. Model similarity was manipulated by having subjects view a female described as a nonathlete (similar) or a male described as a varsity track athlete (dissimilar). The four levels of model talk included: a positive self-talk model who performed and made positive self-efficacy statements, a negative self-talk model who made negative self-efficacy statements, an irrelevant-talk model who made statements unrelated to self-efficacy, and a no-talk model who remained silent throughout the performance. Self-efficacy measures were assessed in addition to performance on three trials of a muscular endurance task. Results revealed that similar model subjects extended their legs significantly longer than dissimilar model and control subjects. Moreover, the similar-positive-talk and similar-no-talk groups performed significantly better than the dissimilar-positive-talk, dissimilar-negative talk, dissimilar-no-talk, and the no-model control groups. Subject self-efficacy, however, was not found to be the major mediating variable affecting these performance changes.

Effects of deindividuating situational cues and aggressive models on subjective deindividuation and aggression.

This experiment demonstrated that a subjective state of deindividuation mediates the effect of deindividuating situational cues on aggression displayed by small groups (n = 4) of coacting aggressors. The deindividuated state was composed of two factors, Self-Awareness and Altered Experiencing, both of which had a causal influence on aggressive behavior. These data are interpreted in terms of deindividuation theories which assume that certain input variables reduce self-awareness and concern about social evaluation and thereby weaken the restraints against expressing antisocial behavior. Also as predicted, compared with a no-model control condition, a high-aggressive model disinhibited overt displays of aggression, whereas a low-aggressive model inhibited aggression among both individuated and deindividuated group members.

Relative influence of sincere, insincere, and neutral symbolic models

The study investigated how the sincerity of models affects their influence, using a delay-of-reward paradigm. Subjects were 40 fifth and sixth graders (ages 9 and 10 years, respectively), selected for delayed gratification patterns. In the experimental manipulation, sincerity or insincerity was explicitly attributed to the model or, in a neutral-model condition, no information about the model's sincerity was given. Subjects then observed the symbolically presented model's immediatereward choices, opposed to their own preferences. Immediately after treatment, children in all model conditions and in a fourth, no-model control group responded to a second delay-preference test. It was found that the influence of models varied substantially as a function of experimentally attributed sincerity. Insincere models had considerably less effect than sincere and neutral models, who provoked substantial and equivalent changes. Insincere models did not evoke significantly different change than occurred in the control group. A postexperimental inquiry showed the experimental manipulation had affected perceptions of the model's sincerity and liking for the model, with the insincere model rated considerably lower than the sincere and neutral models. The relevance of cognitive appraisal in observational learning was discussed.

モデルの遂行水準, 代理自己強化, 代理外的強化が観察者の遂行と自己評価様式に及ぼす効果

The present experiment was designed,(1) to clarify the functional characteristics of vicarious self reinforcement comparing with the function of vicarious external reinforcement, and (2) to estimate the relative effect of modeled performance level and modeled vicarious reinforcement patterns to the performances and self evaluative pattern of observers.The subject were 86 boys and 72 girls, ranging in age from 10 years 5 months to 11 and half years, drown from 5 classes in 5th grade in a public primary school. Model was a 19 years old female undergraduate, and experimenter was a 23-year old male graduate.So as to equalize the task abilities in each experimental and each control groups, the figurenumber substitution task was first administered to all subjects in classroom settings. Then, model and/or each subject was administered three trials of simple arithmetic calculation based upon figurenumber substitution (e. g. _??_) in a booklet. 18 calculation problems were printed, for each trials, Model and subject were given 50 sec. to resolve the problems and 30 sec. inter-trial intervals to rest and to evaluate one's performance. The self evaluation of each subject was measured on the 3 point-graphic scale (not enough, nough, highly enough) after each trial.A 2×2×2×2 factorial design was employed. Half of the experimental children observed high performance model, and half were exposed to low performance model. In both conditions, half the children observed vicarious reward. While the remaining children in each group witnessed vicarious punishments. In addition, each group was further divided into external (reinforcement was administered by experimenter) or internal (model's self reinforcement) control condition.In high performance condition, model performed 10 problems, and in low performance condition, model performed 6 or 7 problems in each trial. These scores were determined based upon the performance level of no-model control group (Mean=8.25, SD=1.87) of 39 subjects.In reward condition, model or experimenter evaluated model's performance as highly enough, and in punishment condition, they devaluated model's performance as not enough.The main results were p resented in FIG. 1. 2. 3. Analysis of variance performed on over-all self evaluation scores disclosed that highly significant effects were produced by the vicarious reward punishment (F=52.85, P<0.001), and not produced by the other variables. So, vicarious self reinforcement and vicarious external reinforcement were found to be equally efficacious in the modification of self evaluative behavior of observers.Children who obsarved model's self punishment raised significantly their evaluation more affirmatively from first trial to third trial.(t=3.16, P<0.01) But children who observed model receive external punishment did not altered their evaluative standard. So we consider that there should be subtle but important differences between the informative functions of vicarious self reinforcement and vicarious external reinforcement. Vicarious self reinforcement may transmit the self-monitoring flexible self reinforcement pattern, while vicarious external reinforcement, may transmit other-oriented inflexible self reinforcement pattern.Analysis of variance on performance scores revealed that any independent variables we introduced did not produce significant differences.

Sex-role stereotypes, models' race, and imitation.

To determine how sex-role stereotypes mediate the influence of a model, 136 male and female shoppers heard a male or female, black or white model, who was identified as a nurse or television repairman, make unrealistically high estimates of the prices of objects, supposedly for a consumer survey. The objects, some of which were sex-stereotyped, were a bottle opener, pliers, thermometer, football magazine, and recipe holder. When subjects were asked to estimate prices, a larger modeling effect than in a no-model control group was found, and black models were imitated less than white models. Estimates of the nurse for the thermometer, of the female model for the recipe holder, and of the male model for the pliers tended to be imitated more, and female subjects imitated price estimates for the pliers more than did males. There was also a tendency for the price guesses of male models to be remembered better. The results suggested that imitation by adults in this situation was mediated not so much by gender per se as by the subject's expectations of the model's knowledge of the specific behaviors to be imitated.

The Effects of Sex Typing and Sex Appropriateness of Modeled Behavior on Children's Imitation

BARKLEY, RUSSELL A.; ULLMAN, DOUGLAS G.; OTTO, LORI; and BRECHT, JAN M. The Effects of Sex Typing and Sex Appropriateness of Modeled Behavior on Children's Imitation. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1977, 48, 721-725. A review of previous research on children's imitation suggested that the sex typing and sex appropriateness of a model's behavior might be more important than simply the sex of the model and observer in predicting later sex differences in imitation. To further study these variables, 32 boys and 32 girls were randomly assigned within sex to a 2 x 2 x 2 design in which children of both sexes observed videotaped male or female models displaying either masculine or feminine behavior. Also, 8 boys and 8 girls were assigned to a no-model control condition. Results indicated a significant interaction of sex of observer with sex typing of modeled behavior in which girls imitated modeled feminine behavior more than boys, regardless of the sex of the model displaying this sex-typed behavior. The pattern of results for boys suggested a trend toward greater imitation of masculine modeled behavior as compared to girls, again independent of the sex of the model. These results suggested that a major factor in sex differences in children's imitation is the sex appropriateness of the modeled behavior relative to the observer when a sex-typed behavior is modeled.

Modeling influences in social drinking: an experimental analogue.

48 male college students classified as heavy social drinkers were assigned to 1 of 6 groups in a 3 * 2 factorial design. The 1st factor consisted of 3 modeling conditions: exposure to a model who was a heavy consumer of alcohol; a light drinking model; and a no-model control condition. For the 2nd f

Comparative effects of some variations of covert modelling

In covert modeling, subjects imagine a model rather than observe a live or film model. In a 2 × 2 design, multiplicity of models (imagining one vs three different models) and variation of fear stimuli (imagining the model perform with one vs two different snakes) were combined. A no-model control group was included in the design to control for fear-related imagery in the absence of a model. Subjects who imagined multiple models, as opposed to a single model, showed greater avoidance reduction on behavioral and self-report measures at posttreatment and at a 3-week follow-up assessment. Subjects who imagined a single snake and those who imagined different snakes were not different in avoidance. In general, the results supported the efficacy of covert modeling over no-model controls.

Factors effecting nonreinforced imitation: The model as a source of information of social control

Three experiments were conducted with kindergarten, second-grade, and fourth-grade children ( N = 208) which investigated whether modelling of unreinforced behavior exerts control over childrens' behavior by providing information concerning other types of behavior more likely to be reinforced or by creating social demands for imitation. After learning that reinforcement was available, children observed an adult model emit a reinforced response or an unreinforced response and then remain to monitor the child's subsequent behavior or leave the situation. Compared to a no-model control, all children except kindergarten girls emitted more reinforced responses after observing the model being reinforced. Only second-grade children, however, showed performance changes after observing the unreinforced model. Second-grade children also only performed what they learned when the unreinforced model was not present. Conclusions were that the unreinforced behavior of the model serves not only as a source of information but also as a cue for unreinforced imitation.

Covert modeling, model similarity, and reduction of avoidance behavior

The present study investigated the effect of covert modeling in reducing snake avoidance. Covert modeling requires the subject to imagine a model rather than to observe a live or film model. Similarity of the covert model to the avoidant subject was examined in a 2×2 design combining two levels of fear-irrelevant model similarity (model of same age and sex as the subject versus model who was much older and of opposite sex) and fear-relevant model similarity (coping versus mastery model). In two sessions, subjects imagined scenes in which the covert model interacted with the feared stimulus. A no-model control group, which imagined fear-related scenes in the absence of a model, was included in the design. Fear-irrelevant similarity contributed reliably to avoidance reduction. A behavioral measure of avoidance and self-report measures of affect and attitudes indicated that imagination of a model similar in age and same sexed led to greater changes than a model dissimilar on these dimensions. Fear-relevant similarity led to few reliable changes in avoidance. The greatest vicarious learning tended to occur in subjects who imagined a model similar in fear-related and nonfear-related dimensions. The results were found at posttreatment and at a 2- to 3-week follow-up.

Modeling and Personal Space Behavior in Children

Summary Approach vs. be approached behavioral measures of personal space were taken on 102 fifth and sixth grade children, each of whom was assigned to one of three groups: (a) Model-Close condition, (b) Model Far condition, and (c) No-Model Control group. A male peer served as model (M), and a 41-year-old female served as the object person. Results revealed a strong modeling tendency with both girls and boys tending to stay close or far from the object person as a function of M behavior. Boys and girls tended to behave similarly in the Close and Far modeling groups, but girls used more space in the No-Model Control condition. These findings suggest that modeling had an attenuating effect on sex differences in use of space. It was concluded that modeling theory is a viable conceptual tool for use in personal space research.

Persistence of Effects of Live Behavioral, Televised Behavioral, and Live Verbal Models on Resistance to Deviation

WOLF, THOMAS M., and CHEYNE, J. ALLAN. Persistence of Effects of Live Behavioral, Televised Behavioral, and Live Verbal Models on Resistance to Deviation. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1972, 43, 1429-1436. Boys were exposed to a live behavioral, a televised behavioral, or a live verbal peer model who conformed to or deviated from a prohibition rule. The rule was imposed by an adult experimenter who instructed the subjects not to play with 1 of 2 toys. Subjects were then given immediate and 1-month follow-up resistanceto-deviation tests with the toys. Play behavior with the forbidden toy was inhibited and disinhibited following exposure to conforming and deviant models, respectively, relative to a no-model control condition. The magnitude of this effect depended upon the mode of presentation of the model. Live behavioral and televised behavioral models were the most effective, and live verbal models were the least effective. Moreover, the effects of the deviant models were more stable over time than the effects of the conforming models.

Incentives versus instructions in transmitting grammatical parameters with experimenter as model

Children's imitation of the language paradigms displayed by an adult, who took both the roles of experimenter and model, was studied in 93 third and fourth graders. The grammatical parameters of sentence-pattern, word-content and tense (imperfect) of verb were investigated; these response measures were shown to be relatively independent. Analyses of variance revealed that exposure to modeling produced large and significant imitative changes in content, sentence-structure and tense, thereby confirming the major results of a prior experiment in which the roles of experimenter and model had been separated. Further, the tense and sentence-structure effects were generalized to a new set of pictorial stimuli and were shown to surpass the performance of a no-model control group. Alternative experimental treatments contrasted promise of a money reward without specific instructions to copy the language paradigms modeled, with a procedure that instructed the child to copy the sentences he observed but offered him no reinforcements for performance. In general, the alternative procedures gave closely comparable results; the only significant difference observed favored the instructed (no incentive) group.

Effects of symbolic modeling on the syntactical productions of retardates

The effects of symbolic modeling of syntactical constructions on the subsequent language productions of retarded children were assessed. As anticipated, the modeling groups showed greater production of specific, relevant constructions during training than no-model control Ss who were also rewarded for such constructions. Three weeks following the initial task, a posttest indicated that the effect of modeling was durable.

Effects of consistent or deviant modeling cues on the adoption of a self-imposed standard

This study investigated the effects of consistent or deviant modeling cues exhibited by 0, 1, 2, or 3 successively presented models upon children’s adherence to an explicitly stated stringent standard which they had been previously taught. Ss who observed deviant social models were less likely to precisely adhere to the stated rule than those in the no-model control group, while those who observed consistent models were more likely to do so. Moreover, the pattern of results suggests that the influence of modeling cues in this situation is one of relatively precise matching rather than a generalized inhibition or disinhibition effect.