Population In Nigeria Research Articles

Motivations and Impact of Training of Home Care Workers for Older Adults in Nigeria

Background: The aging population in Nigeria presents a significant challenge to the healthcare system, particularly in providing adequate home care. This study addresses the urgent need for well-trained home care workers as traditional family-based care models become increasingly unsustainable due to urbanization and economic pressures. Objectives: The study explored the motivations and impacts of a two-week training program for home care workers, aimed at equipping participants with essential skills for caring for older adults in Nigeria. Methods: Using a descriptive qualitative approach, including semi-structured interviews with 20 participants, this study investigates the motivations for joining the training program and its impact on professional development and competency in elder care. Results: The findings reveal diverse motivations for participation, including aspirations for career advancement, personal growth, and a strong commitment to providing quality care. The training program significantly enhanced participants' skills, knowledge, and confidence, enabling them to manage complex caregiving situations more effectively and improve the overall quality of care. Conclusions: This research highlights the critical role of specialized training in improving the quality of life for older adults in Nigeria. It emphasizes the need for policy interventions to standardize training for home care workers, ensuring consistent quality of care for Nigeria's aging population and recognizing the profession's essential contribution to the healthcare system.

Sustainable Food Supply: The Interplay between Population Growth and Land Productivity Changes as a Pathway to 2030 and Beyond for Nigeria

Context and Background: Sustainable food supply is a critical global challenge, particularly in developing countries like Nigeria, where rapid population growth and limited land resources create a complex interplay with far-reaching implications. Thus, there will be a need to increase food production to keep pace with the population increase. Goal and Objectives: This study seeks to analyse the interplay between population growth and land productivity changes in Nigeria as a pathway towards achieving sustainable food supply by 2030 and beyond, in line with Goal 2 of the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) which is aimed at “ending hunger, achieving food security, improving nutrition, and promoting sustainable agriculture. Methodology: Data on land productivity and Nigeria's population and Population growth for 1961-2022 was sourced from the Economic Research Service of the United States Department of Agriculture (ERS-USDA, 2023). The data was analysed using descriptive statistics such as mean; standard errors and graphs; the Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) was used to explain the interplay between population growth and land productivity changes in Nigeria. Results: The results of the population estimates revealed that the model successfully converged and significantly (p<0) explained 98.3% of the variance of the endogenous variable that is, the population at an intercept of -2500.7. Of the hypothesized variables, year (1.212), cropland (9.14E-4), irrigated (0.283), and pasture (0.003). These findings imply that the future population would increase in each period until the series becomes explosive because, the coefficient of the lagged variable of population is positive and greater than 1, which is in contrast with the assumptions of the ARIMA model which should be less than 1. Thus, the study recommends adopting precision agriculture techniques such as GPS mapping, soil analysis, crop health monitoring, and automated irrigation to maximize crop yields, reduce costs, and transform farming practices in Nigeria.

Design of a Stand-Alone Photovoltaic (PV) System for a Three-Bedroom Apartment in Mubi, Adamawa State, Nigeria.

In the world today, electricity is also among the essential basic amenities of every human being because it drives the socio-economic activities of any country. More than 1.3 billion of the populations across the globe are living with low or no source of electricity. The lack of accessibility to electric power to this population brought an existence of a wide gap in current energy sources and this affected the growth of such population mostly residing in remote settlements of developing nations. Electrical energy is a significant feature for the economic and developmental advancement in every nation. Even with the abundance of many sources of energy (conventional and non-conventional sources) around the world and in Nigeria, there are still problems in accessing electricity which could be attributed to its generation, transmission, or distribution. These challenges hinder the socio-economic advancement of a country. About 95 million (55 % of Nigeria's population) Nigerians are living with no supply of electricity and the total power/electricity produced, there is about 30-35 % loss in the generated energy from transmission and distribution. This research studied the possibility of electrifying a three-bedroom apartment in Mubi's high residential layout using a solar photovoltaic system through the adoption of HOMER Software. The parameters/data used in this research work were obtained from the basic appliances usually found in an average household and from works of literature on studies performed on energy utilization in some residential areas in Nigeria, taking into consideration their power ratings, quantity, and solar component prices. These and some design considerations like system fixed capital operation and maintenance cost of ₦ 4,000 per year, project lifetime of 20 years, system fixed capital cost, discount rate of 9 %, average solar radiation data, coordinate of Mubi, among other parameters were applied in the HOMER software for the design, simulation and optimized results obtained. The optimized results indicate that a solar PV array of 5 kW comprising 25 solar panels of 200 W each, 10 sets of 12 V / 220 Ah batteries, and a 5000 VA inverter with charger are sufficient to accommodate the load of 16.086 kWh/day. The cost of energy (COE) with a 100 % renewable fraction is ₦ 410.94 / kWh.

Inter-Ethnic Violence in Nigeria and the Proposed Solution to Address Them

Inter-ethnic violence in Nigeria refers to conflicts and tensions between different ethnic groups within the country. It is a complex issue with deep-rooted historical, social, and political factors. The subject matter of this paper is to examine the prevalence of inter-ethnic tensions in Nigeria, which is defined as an act of aggression or violence between clusters of two or more distinct ethnicities. It identifies the underlying reasons for this violence, which include sectarian strife, ethnic rivalry for resources, political instability, and economic disparity. It also examines the impact of this violence on Nigeria's population and economy, which has been linked to an increase in poverty, dislocation, and migration. Finally, this paper provides an investigation of the approaches employed by the government of Nigeria to tackle this issue, including their successes and failures, and proposes effective solutions to reduce the occurrence of this type of violence. To address these challenges, some proposed solutions include promoting dialogue and reconciliation between ethnic groups, implementing inclusive governance structures, and investing in education and economic opportunities for all communities. Ultimately, this paper emphasizes the need for inter-ethnic collaboration to reduce the incidence of this form of violence and promote security and stability in Nigeria.

Barriers and facilitators to the delivery of age-friendly health services in Primary Health Care centres in southwest, Nigeria: A qualitative study.

With the rapid growth of Nigeria's older population, it has become important to establish age-friendly healthcare systems that support care for older people. This study aimed to explore the barriers and facilitators to the delivery of age-friendly health services from the perspectives of primary healthcare managers in Lagos State, Nigeria. We conducted 13 key informant interviews including medical officers of health, principal officers of the (Primary Health Care) PHC Board and board members at the state level. Using a grounded theory approach, qualitative data analysis was initially done by rapid thematic analysis followed by constant comparative analysis using Dedoose software to create a codebook. Three teams of two coders each blind-coded the interviews, resolved coding discrepancies, and reviewed excerpts by code to extract themes. The main barriers to the delivery of age-friendly services included the lack of recognition of older adults as a priority population group; absence of PHC policies targeted to serve older adults specifically; limited training in care of older adults; lack of dedicated funding for care services for older adults and data disaggregated by age to drive decision-making. Key facilitators included an acknowledged mission of the PHCs to provide services for all ages; opportunities for the enhancement of older adult care; availability of a new building template that supports facility design which is more age-friendly; access to basic health care funds; and a positive attitude towards capacity building for existing workforce. While we identified a number of challenges, these offer opportunities to strengthen and prioritize services for older adults in PHCs and build on existing facilitators. Work is needed to identify and test interventions to overcome these challenges and improve the responsiveness of the PHC system to older adults through the delivery of age-friendly health services in PHCs in Lagos, Nigeria.

Navigating Nigeria's Health Landscape: Population Growth and Its Health Implications.

This comprehensive analysis examines the multifaceted impacts of population growth on public health in Nigeria. Drawing parallels with Omran's epidemiological transition model (that focuses on the intricate means that patterns of health and illness are changing, as well as the relationships that exist between these patterns and the sociological, demographic, and economic factors that influence them) and referencing experiences from Chile and Ceylon. The study highlights a substantial rise in Nigeria's population causing a double burden of infectious and non-communicable diseases, leading to higher morbidity, and mortality rates, increased healthcare costs, decreased productivity, and health inequalities, posing significant challenges to the country's healthcare system. Furthermore, the correlation between low education levels and health outcomes underscores the importance of addressing systemic deficiencies in Nigeria's educational sector. The article emphasizes the urgent need for strategic interventions to mitigate the adverse effects of population growth on health. Recommendations include revitalizing primary healthcare centers, fostering public-private partnerships to enhance healthcare accessibility, leveraging technological advancements like telemedicine, and promoting initiatives to improve nutrition and environmental sustainability. Moreover, prioritizing education on reproductive health and family planning emerges as a crucial strategy to manage population growth sustainably. In conclusion, the article underscores the imperative for collaborative efforts across sectors to navigate Nigeria's evolving health landscape amidst increasing population growth. By implementing targeted policies and interventions, Nigeria can strive toward achieving universal health coverage, enhancing health outcomes, and ultimately raising the standard of living for its populace.

Nigeria's Population In 2063: Exploring the Challenges and Opportunities in Advance

Nigeria's Population In 2063: Exploring the Challenges and Opportunities in Advance

Potentials of Aquatic Plants in the Treatment of Paint Industry Effluent: A review

Nigeria's population has increased dramatically in recent years, leading to massive urbanization and industrialization with a concomitant increase in environmental pollution. Chemical industries such as the paint industry use large quantities of water in their processes, resulting in the generation and release of a lot of effluent into the environment. These effluents contain suspended solids, pigments, colorants, heavy metals, oil, and grease, which, if not properly managed, could have a negative impact on the environment and human health. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to review the effectiveness of the various conventional methods of treating paint effluent as compared to phytoremediation.

Moving the needle for COVID-19 vaccinations in Nigeria through leadership, accountability, and transparency.

The first set of vaccines arrived in Nigeria in March 2021. The National Primary Health Care Development Agency (NPHCDA) set out to vaccinate at least 70% percent of Nigeria's eligible population, i.e., 111,776,503 people, by December 2022. As of June 2021, only 3% had received at least one dose of the vaccine. This presented a threat to the achievement of NPHCDA's goal. Nigeria Solidarity Support Fund (NSSF) went into a partnership with NPHCDA to accelerate the uptake of COVID-19 vaccinations across Nigeria over 3 months. Across Nigeria's 6 geopolitical zones, 6 states were selected, namely: Adamawa, Edo, Imo, Katsina, Nasarawa, and Ogun states based on performance, political will, and absence of external resources. A two-pronged approach was implemented: unrestricted funding to the sub-national level and providing technical support at the national level. 5 out of 6 states received unrestricted funding to ramp up vaccination coverage. They also received adequate vaccine supplies. A total of 12,000 healthcare workers were trained on safe immunization practices and multiple communities were engaged across the 133 local government areas (LGAs) through religious and community leaders. After 6 months, there was an average of 35% increase in the uptake of COVID-19 vaccines in the 5 states. An indicator tracker was developed for weekly reviews at the national level and the total population vaccinated in Nigeria increased from 6,186,647 to 11,985,336 at the end of the partnership. Unrestricted funding, though not without its risks, can yield a significant impact on health. The intervention was co-designed with stakeholders and had leadership buy-in, accountability mechanisms, with unrestricted funding. These techniques produced an increase in the vaccination rates in the 5 states and across the country. These elements should be explored for application to other program designs such as routine immunization.

Reflections on the Impact of Urban Sprawl on the Architecture of the City: Lessons from Benin City, Nigeria

This paper focuses on Benin City, Nigeria, as a case study to explore urban sprawl and its associated problems resulting from unplanned and uncontrolled spatial expansion. Informal settlements house approximately 45% of Nigeria's urban population, leading to a range of land and environmental challenges. The study investigates how sustainable development goals can be realized through efficient sustainable planning and urban design concepts, with a focus on managing urban sprawl in the city. The methodology comprises a literature review, field investigation of unplanned or squatter settlements in a selected part of Benin City through the administration of 201 questionnaires, and an analysis of its developments and physical transformations. Understanding the issues of urban sprawl arising from the rapid spatial expansion of Benin City is crucial for achieving a well-organized, planned, orderly, and sustainable environment. This paper provides valuable insights and information to facilitate effective urban planning in the study area. Additionally, it offers guidance to practitioners and developers on the adoption of sustainability measures in their projects. The findings of this study contribute to expanding the knowledge horizon and serve as a reference for further research on spatial expansion and the incidence of sprawl in urban centers throughout Nigeria.

Willingness to enroll and pay for community-based health insurance, decision motives, and associated factors among rural households in Enugu State, Southeast Nigeria.

Over 70% of Nigeria's population is poor and rural, and most lack financial risk protection against ill health. Community-based health insurance (CBHI) may be an essential intervention strategy for ensuring that quality healthcare reaches the informal and rural populations. This article explores the willingness to enroll (WTE) and willingness to pay (WTP) for CBHI by community members, their decision considerations, and associated factors in Enugu State, Nigeria. We adopted a cross-sectional survey design with a multi-stage sampling approach. A validated and pre-tested questionnaire was used to elicit information from the respondents. WTE and WTP for CBHI was determined using the bid contingent valuation method. A test of correlation/association (Chi-square and ordinary least square regression) was conducted to ascertain the relationship between WTP for CBHI and other variables at a 95% confidence interval. The socioeconomic status index was generated using principal component analysis. A test of association was conducted between the demographic characteristics and WTE and WTP variables. A total of 501 household heads or their representatives were included in the study which yielded a return rate of 98.2%. The finding showed that most (92.4%) of the respondents indicated a WTE in CBHI. 86.6% indicated a willingness to pay cash for CBHI, while 84.4% indicated a willingness to pay other household members for CBHI. There was a significant association between gender, marital status, education, location, and willingness to pay. The study shows that 81.6% of the respondent stated that qualified staff availability motivates their WTE/WTP for CBHI, while 78.1% would be willing to enroll and pay for CBHI if services were provided free, and 324 (74.6%) stated that proximity to a health facility would encourage them to enroll and pay for the CBHI. This community demand analysis shows that rural and peri-urban community members are open to using a contributory mechanism for their health care, raising the prospect of establishing CBHI. To achieve universal health coverage, policy measures need to be taken to promote participation, provide financial and non-financial incentives and ensure that the service delivery mechanism is affordable and accessible. Further studies are needed to explore ways to encourage participation and enrollment in CBHI and other contributory schemes among under-served populations and improve access to and utilization of healthcare services.

Modeling the Effect of Population Density and Some Related Factors on Covid-19 Pandemic in Nigeria: An Application of Count Data Regression

Aim: Nigeria's population density and other factors like confirmed, admitted, and discharged cases have adversely impacted health behaviors and the management of the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aims to investigate how population, population density, confirmed, admitted, and discharged cases affect the prevalence of the COVID-19 pandemic in the 36 states of Nigeria, including the FCT. Method: The number of COVID-19-related deaths, confirmed, admitted, and discharged individuals, from June 20, 2021, to December 31, 2022, were extracted from the Nigeria Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) online database, while data set on the Nigeria population and density were collected from Nigeria’s National Population Commission (NPC) website. Three count data regression techniques; Poisson, Negative Binomial, and Generalized Poisson Regression models were employed to analyze these count data. Result: It was found that the number of admitted patients has a significant negative impact on COVID-19, whereas the number of confirmed laboratory COVID-19 cases has a significant positive effect on the number of deaths related to COVID-19. Additionally, the result showed that Nigeria's COVID-19 death rate is negatively impacted by discharged cases, population, and population density. Conclusion: It is inferred that the Generalized Poisson Regression model is the most suitable count data regression model for over-dispersion and is the best model for predicting the number of COVID-19-related deaths in Nigeria between June 20, 2021, and December 31, 2022.

Economics and Public Health Implications of Solid Waste Management in Nigeria: A Review

Nigeria's population growth as a result of urban techno-economic development and changes in the production and consumption of materials has increased the amount of solid trash produced. The nation's existing waste management procedures are unsustainable and are putting both the environment and the economy in danger. In this research, we evaluate the major elements of the available literature, including waste characterization, waste management techniques, economic impacts of solid waste management as well as the consequences on public health. From the result of the investigation, it was determined that the country's current waste management practices are unsuccessful and that improper solid waste management has a detrimental influence on public health, contributing to diseases like typhoid, cholera, polio, malaria, and yellow fever. Yet, properly managed solid waste can also provide some economic benefits, such as providing industries with raw materials and a means of subsistence for the individuals who are employed in the management process. So, to handle solid waste efficiently, households must be educated on proper disposal methods, and waste management organizations must create recycling facilities.

Impact of land use change on urban heat island in Etsoko West, Southern Nigeria

The phenomenon of urbanization and population growth is a major global concern, as both emerging and old cities continue to expand, particularly in developing countries. Nigeria's urban population has grown dramatically over the last five decades, resulting in shrinking green spaces and urban forest, as well as increased urban island heat. As a result, this study looked into the existing and predicted land use and land cover (LULC), as well as land surface temperature change in Etsako West LGA of Edo State, Nigeria. The supervised maximum likelihood classification method was used to classify the town into four classes using Landsat data from 1987, 2001, and 2020. Similarly, LULC for the year 2040 was predicted using the Markov and CA-markov models. The Landsat Project manual was used to extract the land surface temperature. It was discovered that the built-up area increased over time, from 28.1 km2 in 2001 to 103.07 km2 in 2020, with a projected 166.93 km2 in 2040. Furthermore, forestland decreased throughout time, but the decline was more pronounced in 2020, with decline of twice that of 2001. Cultivated/grassland land has increased over time and is expected to continue to do so in 2040, but surface water hasn't changed significantly. The average land surface temperature climbed from 25.67 °C in 1987 to 32.39 °C in 2020. The environmental impact of urban sprawl and rising urban heat cannot be overstated, as it includes both direct and indirect human and environmental consequences. As a result, eco-friendly strategies were recommended in ensuring sustainable urban growth and reducing urban island heat.

Linkages between men's wealth status and the ideal number of children: A trend and multilevel analysis of survey data in Nigeria.

Most African societies practice a patriarchal family system that endows a man with authority and dominance in the family and society with a defined role of being the breadwinner of the home. A man is expected to have a great influence in determining the ideal number of children in the family and take a domineering role in decision-making, especially those related to household resource allocation. Therefore, this study examines the relationship between men's wealth status and an ideal number of children. The study used secondary data from the National Demographic Health Survey (NDHS) from 2003 to 2018. The objectives were achieved using descriptive and inferential statistics, including frequency, mean, ANOVA, and multilevel analysis techniques. Wealth status significantly influenced the ideal number of children considering the crude and adjusted regression analysis. After adjusting for individual-level and contextual factors, the odd ratio of ideal number of children was significantly lower among men in the richest categories of the wealth index. Moreover, men with two wives and above, uneducated men, Northern residents, men living in high community family norms, low community family planning, high community poverty, and low community level of education desired a high number of children. The analyses suggest the need for a consideration of community structures to provide lucrative employment for men and would experience an appreciable fertility decline in line with the objectives and targets stated in Nigeria's population policies and programmes.

Drivers, Enablers, Barriers and Technologies (DEBT) For Low-Energy Public Housing Delivery in Nigeria

Nigeria, as a developing country, has vast and varied energy resources, both renewable and non-renewable. In spite of these resources, an estimated 75% of her population of close to 200 million faces serious energy poverty problems due to shortfalls in energy supply compared to its energy demand. Consequently, a large portion of the population lives without access to adequate electricity. Hence, the country encounters unprecedented struggles with incessant power outages, unemployment, a low human development index (HDI), and poverty. This paper examines the drivers, enablers, barriers, and technological considerations for low-energy integration in the provision of housing for Nigeria's huge population. The objective is to harness the varied energy resources to aid in the delivery of environmentally friendly and sustainable housing in a developing economy such as Nigeria. This is critical in light of rising energy costs, environmental degradation, global warming, greenhouse gas emissions, and energy consumption. Reduced energy use in housing is highlighted as a critical issue in environmental management. The paper highlighted several factors that need to be appropriately addressed for a paradigm shift to low-energy integration to achieve sustainable housing delivery in Nigeria. It recommends the application of energy conservation measures in mass housing construction, the full exploitation and promotion of renewable energy resources, and energy efficiency practices in housing provision, among others. The paper concludes that these should be given adequate attention during planning, designing, and delivering sustainable housing.

Current epidemiology of histoplasmosis in Nigeria: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Histoplasmosis commonly occurs in the advanced HIV disease population and also in immunocompetent individuals. Previous reviews and recent studies highlight several cases of histoplasmosis reported in Nigeria. We aimed to describe the current epidemiology of histoplasmosis in Nigeria and the need for active surveillance in the at-risk populations. Literature searches for all publications on histoplasmosis in Nigeria were performed using online databases including Google scholar, PubMed and African Journal online. The following search terms: 'histoplasmosis' and 'Nigeria', AND/OR 'Histoplasma and Nigeria' were used. No limitations on the date or other search criteria were applied, to avoid the exclusion of articles on histoplasmosis in Nigeria. All publications on histoplasmosis outside Nigeria were excluded. Our review identified a total of 231 cases of histoplasmosis reported from Nigeria: 128 were from individual case reports and case series while 103 were cases from two observational studies. Of the 231 cases, 97 (42.0%) were from South West Nigeria, 66 (28.6%) were from South-South Nigeria, 24 (10.4%) were from North West, 22 (9.5%) from North Central Nigeria, 17 (7.4%) from South East Nigeria and 5 (2.2%) from the North East. Based on Nigeria's current population size of 216,953,585 the burden of histoplasmosis per 100,000 inhabitants was estimated to be 0.1%. The sheer number of cases detected in recent observational studies compared with individual case reports and series reported over a longer duration of 6 decades suggests gross under-reporting of histoplasmosis in Nigeria. Histoplasmosis is not an uncommon clinical entity in Nigeria. Histoplasmosis case finding should be improved by training and retraining healthcare professionals and providing much-needed diagnostic capacity and infrastructure across health facilities in Nigeria.

Economic consequences of rapid population growth in Nigeria

Nigeria is currently the world's sixth most populous country. However, empirical research on the impact of this growing population on economic growth is divided. This study adds to existing research on the economic effects of Nigeria's rapid population growth. This study used a qualitative research design because it relied on secondary data gathered from books, journal papers, and online sources. Its content was examined in light of the objectives of the study, and Malthusian theory serves as the study's foundation. The majority of Nigeria's development issues, according to the study's findings, can be directly or indirectly linked to the country's rapid population growth. This study thus urges, among other things, the need for an all-encompassing mechanism that will address issues of conflict and insecurity, migration and displacement, access to education for girls, and proper regulation of infrastructure development, as well as the undiluted conservative ideology whereby many, especially in Nigeria, see population growth as the key to control of political power and resources that should be thrown away in favor of a more effective and functional system.

Low-Income Earners Housing Affordability Issues in Nigeria: A Systematic Review of Sustainable Approaches

Studies have revealed that the proportion of persons displaced owing to housing is growing significantly. This affects developing countries like Nigeria and other similar African countries. Low-income earners (LIEs) are observed to be severely afflicted by this global threat. The LIEs who are said to account for more than 90 percent of Nigeria's population have been alleged to live in slums, blighted areas, and unplanned settlements. This study investigates sustainable approaches to addressing LIEs' housing affordability issues in Nigeria. This study is based on a systematic review of relevant literature, and its findings show that sustainable options for addressing Nigerian LIEs' housing affordability difficulties are examined using technological, institutional, economic, social, and environmental approaches to sustainable housing affordability (SHA). This paper urges the government, stakeholders, policymakers, and property developers in Nigeria and other developing nations to implement sustainable housing policies for low-income housing affordability. It contributes to the frontiers of knowledge by providing helpful information on low-income housing provision, challenges of affordability, sustainability, and management approaches, and at the same time, gives direction to research interest on low-income housing in Nigeria and other developing countries.

Reproductive Behaviors among Men of a Rural Community in North-Western Nigeria

Background: Fertility is an important component of population change and has attracted the interest of scholars and policy makers. Nigeria's population growth rate has been driven by high fertility, which has fallen in the last few decades but not as rapidly as the fall of the crude death rate. Men and their kinsmen are the decision-makers on issues relating to reproductive health such as timing of the next birth, number of children and when to stop childbearing while their women cooperate. We determined the reproductive behaviors of men in Doka community in Kaduna State Nigeria.
 Methodology: A cross-sectional descriptive community based study of 320 men was conducted.
 Results: The mean age±SD of the male respondents was 40 (±14.2) years. The average age at first marriage among men was 23.32 (±4.62 years), the contraceptive use among men was 10(3.2%). Above a third 118 (37.9%) of men were in polygamous union. There was a statistically significant increase in the mean number of living children as the age of men increased (p=0.001). The mean number of children ever fathered was significantly associated with the educational status of men (p=0.03).
 Conclusion: we found a very low contraceptive use, high number of desired children as well as living children among the men. Government should enlighten married men on the importance of contraceptive use for birth control as well as the social and economic implications of having too many children.
 Keywords: Contraception; Desired children; Fertility; Mean number of children.