Negative Attitudes Research Articles

Validating the Attitudes Toward Plagiarism Scale and Examining the Interrelationships among its Constructs.

This study validates the Attitudes Toward Plagiarism (ATP) scale and investigates the interrelationships among its three constructs: positive attitudes, negative attitudes, and subjective norms regarding plagiarism. Data were collected from 720 students across two universities in Bangladesh. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted on data from one university (n = 412), followed by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on data from another university (n = 308). The EFA extracted 20 items from the original 29-item ATP scale, while the CFA retained a 17-item version. Both analyses confirmed the ATP's original three-factor structure. Pearson's correlation and structural equation modeling (SEM) were performed using the total sample (n = 720) to examine the relationships among the constructs. The results of Pearson's correlation showed significant positive correlations among the ATP constructs. SEM analysis revealed that subjective norms significantly influenced positive attitudes, and positive attitudes significantly mediated the relationship between subjective norms and negative attitudes toward plagiarism.

Assessment of knowledge, attitudes, and practices of livestock farmers regarding antimicrobial use, resistance, and residues in selected zones of Oromia region, Ethiopia

The misuse of antimicrobials in food-producing animals plays a major role in the development of antimicrobial resistance and residues, posing a serious health challenge in developing nations like Ethiopia. This research aimed to assess the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) status of livestock farmers with respect to antimicrobial use (AMU), antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and antimicrobial residues. A cross-sectional study was conducted from September 2022 to June 2023. We determined the KAP of livestock farmers of the two selected zones of Oromia (n = 570). The KAP of livestock farmers was assessed using a pre-tested questionnaire through face-to-face interviews. Eighteen items were used to assess livestock farmers’ KAP. Logistic regression was used to analyze the relationship between different predictor variables and the KAP scores of the participants. The result showed that 55.5% of the farmers were from Buno Bedele zone and 44.5% were from Ilubabor zone. The results showed that 78% of farmers used antimicrobials in the last 6 months for different purposes. Antibiotics (64%) and anthelminthic (36%) were the most widely used antimicrobials to treat livestock diseases. Most farmers (79.5%) lacked knowledge about AMU, AMR and antimicrobial residue, while 84.3% had a negative attitude about AMU, AMR and antimicrobial residue. Similarly, 78.0% of the livestock farmers were found to be practicing improperly about AMU, AMR and antimicrobial residue. All questions evaluating the KAP of livestock farmers showed a significant association (p < 0.05) with their respective KAP categories. Educational level of livestock farmers was correlated to their attitudes (OR = 2.47) and practices (OR = 4.77) regarding AMU, AMR, and antimicrobial residues. The experience in animal rearing are also positively correlated with their knowledge (OR = 1.55) and practices regarding AMU, AMR and antimicrobial residues. In conclusion, the results of this study indicate that farmers in the study area have poor knowledge, negative attitudes, and bad practices about AMU, AMR, and antimicrobial residues. Therefore, enhancing farmers’ awareness is essential to minimize the irrational use of antimicrobials, thereby decreasing the occurrence of AMR.

Knowledge and Attitudes of Donor Human Milk of Mothers in the Palestinian Territories and Israel.

Introduction: Donor human milk (DHM) is the next best option when mothers' milk is unavailable. The study objective was to examine mothers' knowledge and attitudes regarding DHM. Materials and Methods: A prospective, descriptive, online study using mixed methods. Regression analysis was used to control for confounding variables and content analysis for the qualitative component. Results: Eighty mothers from the Palestinian Territories and Israel participated. Mothers' mean objective knowledge score was 3.4/6, and self-evaluation knowledge score was 2.4/5, with religion significant for both scores (p < 0.001 and p = 0.002), respectively. Compared with Muslim mothers, Christian and Jewish mothers were more likely to prefer DHM to formula: (adjusted odds ratio [95% confidence interval], 4.9 [1.5-16.6], and 17.5 [4.3-71.4]), donate HM (human milk) to a friend or relative (7.8 [2.0-30.3]) and 60 [9.9-362.3]) or donate HM to a human milk bank (5.4 [1.3-23.3] and 11.2 [2.6-47.5]). Muslim and Christian mothers were more likely to state that DHM was permissible only under certain circumstances. Regression analysis revealed that only religion was significant for mothers' response that DHM was permissible (p < 0.001). Qualitative analysis revealed that differences in mothers' knowledge and attitudes were related to milk kinship. Conclusions: In this first study of mothers' knowledge and attitudes of DHM in the Palestinian Territories and Israel, results revealed low knowledge and negative attitudes regarding DHM correlated with the mother's culture. Future programs should include culturally competent initiatives regarding the benefits of DHM.

Community knowledge and attitude towards mental illness and its associated factors in Dodoma urban central Tanzania: A cross-sectional study

Access to mental health services and care is hindered by stigmatizing attitude and lack of community knowledge about mental illness. The study aimed to assess the community knowledge and attitude towards mental illness and its associated factors in Dodoma urban, central Tanzania. A community-based analytical cross-sectional study was conducted among 204 participants in Dodoma urban central Tanzania, from July to September 2021. A structured questionnaire adapted from the previous studies was used to collect data from the study participants. A multistage sampling technique was used to select study participants. The factors associated with community knowledge and attitude toward mental illness were established using bivariable and multivariable binary logistic regression models. Majority of respondents have adequate knowledge (67.6%) and positive attitude (55.4%) toward mental illness. Unwilling to visit (61.3%), marry (80.4%), and share a room (52%), were the common identified community stigmatizing attitude toward people with mental illness. The multivariable binary logistic regression model revealed that, age [aOR = 9.94: 95% CI; 1.04–94.97: p = 0.046], ethnicity [aOR = 4.45: 95% CI; 1.20–16.53: p = 0.026], and occupation [aOR = 0.19: 95% CI; 0.04–0.85: p = 0.029] were the social demographic factors associated with community attitude toward mental illness. While, sex [aOR = 5.85: 95% CI; 1.77–19.34: p = 0.004], religion [aOR = 0.36: 95% CI; 0.14–0.93: p = 0.034], marital status [aOR = 0.16: 95% CI; 0.03–0.9: p = 0.039], and occupation [aOR = 18.69: 95% CI; 2.10–166.79: p = 0.009] were the social demographic factors associated with community knowledge regarding mental illness. The study revealed that more than half of respondents displayed a common stigmatizing attitude of not being willing to share a room, marry, or visit a mentally ill person, despite the participants’ adequate knowledge and favorable attitude. Using strategies like the provision of mental health education, forming community-based mental health organizations, and launching public mental health campaigns will help to improve community mental health awareness and reduce negative attitudes.

CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY ON PALLIATIVE CARE KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS END-OF-LIFE CARE AMONG NURSES IN ACUTE MEDICAL AND CRITICAL WARD

Background: Palliative care aims to relieve suffering and improve the quality of life for patients with serious illnesses through a holistic, multidisciplinary approach. Nurses play a pivotal role in delivering end-of-life care, yet their knowledge and attitudes significantly impact the effectiveness of these services. Despite the growing need for palliative care worldwide, disparities in training and exposure remain a concern, particularly in acute medical and critical care settings. Understanding nurses' perspectives can help address educational gaps and enhance palliative care delivery. Objective: This study aimed to assess the knowledge and attitudes of nurses toward palliative care in acute medical and critical care settings and examine the association between demographic characteristics and their perceptions. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in three major public hospitals in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, from August 2023 to November 2024. A sample of 236 nurses was selected using Slovin’s formula. Data collection was performed using the Palliative Care Quiz for Nursing (PCQN) to assess knowledge and the Ferrell and McCaffery (2008) scale to evaluate attitudes. The PCQN scores ranged from 0 to 20, categorizing knowledge into low (0-6), moderate (7-13), and high (14-20) levels. Attitudes were classified into negative (32-72) and positive (73-128) perceptions. Descriptive and inferential statistics, including the Chi-Square test, were applied using SPSS to examine associations between demographic variables and study outcomes. Results: Among nurses, 29.66% (70) had low knowledge, 44.91% (106) demonstrated moderate knowledge, and 25.43% (60) exhibited high knowledge. Attitude analysis showed that 62.9% (141) of nurses had a positive perception, while 37.1% (83) had a negative attitude toward palliative care. The mean perception score was 65.17, placing the majority in the “satisfied” category. Statistically significant associations were found between attitude and marital status (p = 0.027), educational level (p = 0.002), workplace (p &lt; 0.001), and job position (p = 0.002). Knowledge was significantly influenced by educational level (p = 0.005), workplace (p &lt; 0.001), and job position (p = 0.002), whereas gender, prior palliative care experience, and exposure to terminally ill patients showed no significant impact. Conclusion: Nurses demonstrated a generally positive attitude toward palliative care, yet knowledge gaps persisted, particularly among those with lower education levels and less exposure to structured training. The findings emphasize the need for standardized palliative care education and ongoing professional development to improve competency in end-of-life care. Strengthening institutional policies and integrating palliative care into nursing curricula will enhance patient-centered care and improve overall healthcare delivery.

Does size matter? Weight bias, stigma, and medical radiation technology practice in Canada.

Does size matter? Weight bias, stigma, and medical radiation technology practice in Canada.

Virtual eating disorder support group utilization is associated with lower eating disorder symptoms and multiple types of social support

ABSTRACT Support groups are a promising resource, but eating disorder (ED) support group research is scarce. This study aimed to examine associations between support group utilization, psychosocial health, and ED symptoms to guide future research on this resource. Participants (N = 494) were sampled from virtual, clinician-moderated ED support groups. Benjamini–Hochberg-corrected partial correlations tested associations of past-month attendance and participation frequency with measures of psychosocial health and ED symptoms. Participants additionally completed descriptive questions regarding perceived support group benefits. Adjusting for past-month ED treatment, more frequent support group participation was positively related to social companionship and emotional and informational support. More frequent attendance was negatively related to body dissatisfaction, binge eating, purging, restricting, excessive exercise, and negative attitudes toward obesity, but these associations were no longer significant after adjusting for psychosocial health variables. Descriptively, one-third to one-half of participants reported various positive changes from support group utilization. Utilizing and participating in clinician-moderated ED support groups could provide a low-burden outlet for ED symptom management, which may be due to provision of social support. Prospective examination of observed associations is a critical next step to investigate outcomes directly and build a testable model of group processual factors.

Psychometric properties of the Persian version of the ambivalent ageism scale (benevolent and hostile) in the adult population in Iran

BackgroundWith the growing population of older adults and the prevalence of negative attitudes towards them, the issue of ageism and its health and economic impacts in both benevolent and hostile contexts warrants special attention. It is crucial to examine the attitudes of other age groups towards older adults across different societies. Particularly, the benevolent dimension of ageism, which has been less explored in research, requires more focus. Therefore, this study aims to conduct a psychometric evaluation of The Ambivalent Ageism Scale among the adult population in Iran.MethodsThis methodological study was conducted in comprehensive health centers in Gorgan city in 2023. A total of 381 eligible adults participated. The Ambivalent Ageism Scale (AAS) was utilized, and the psychometric assessment included translation, face validity, and content validity. Additionally, exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were performed. The reliability of the scale was evaluated using the internal consistency method. The research findings were analyzed using SPSS and AMOS software version 24.ResultsQualitative face and content validity assessments led to textual and editorial modifications of the items. The Content Validity Ratio (CVR), Item-Content Validity Index (I-CVI), and Kappa (K*) scores were acceptable for all items. In the exploratory factor analysis (EFA), similar to the original questionnaire, three factors were extracted, accounting for approximately 54% of the total variance. The fit indices in the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) indicated an acceptable model fit. During CFA, four items were eliminated. The reliability of the entire questionnaire was deemed acceptable with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.763. Consequently, the Persian version of the Ambivalent Ageism Scale was confirmed with nine items.ConclusionThe Persian version of The Ambivalent Ageism Scale demonstrates sufficient validity and reliability for measuring attitudes towards aging within Iranian society. Given the cultural adaptation of this tool, the questionnaire can be utilized to assess adults’ views and attitudes towards older adults in both hostile and benevolent dimensions. Furthermore, it can aid in formulating family-oriented policies for older adult care and facilitate improvements in the quality of care for this population group.

Context matters: how different information influences consumer preferences and willingness to pay for animal products fed with insects

Abstract The use of insects as an alternative source of animal feed is gaining interest due to their positive environmental impact. Consumers are generally more accepting of using insects as sustainable feed for animals than consuming insects directly. However, limited research exists on how different informational contexts influence consumer preferences and willingness to pay (WTP) for insect-fed animal products. This quantitative study addresses this gap by surveying 1,006 consumers in Spain, stratified by age and gender. Using the Heckman sample selection model, the results reveal that the probability of purchasing insect-fed animal products increases with younger age, municipal market shopping, online shopping habits, and a positive attitude towards inflation, while it decreases in households with elderly members. In contrast, neophobic attitudes and negative attitudes towards adding insects in animal feed significantly reduce the likelihood of purchasing these products. In the outcome equation, WTP is significantly influenced by household income, education level, online shopping behaviour, anthropocentric attitude, and negative attitude towards adding insects in animal feed. Higher household income is associated with lower WTP, while online shopping increases WTP. Higher education levels are linked to lower WTP for chicken and pork but are not significant for eggs. Consumers with a stronger anthropocentric attitude and negative attitudes towards using insects in animal feed are less willing to pay for these products. Consumers’ WTP premiums for insect-fed animal products range from 21% to 31%, with the highest premiums observed when no specific information about insects’ rearing, treatment, or processing is provided. Budget constraints and trust issues regarding sustainable insect feed are the main barriers to acceptance. These findings suggest that raising awareness about insect feed production, and emphasising animal welfare practices could enhance consumer acceptance. Furthermore, the substantial WTP for these products highlights their potential as premium items in the Spanish market.

Socialisation and ethnic majorities’ attitudes towards ethnic minorities: a systematic review and meta-analysis of correlational evidence

ABSTRACT Negative attitudes of ethnic majorities towards ethnic minorities constitute a crucial obstacle to achieving social cohesion in ethnically diverse societies. There remains a paucity in the empirical state-of-the-art of socialisation theory on whether and how different aspects of socialisation are associated with ethnic majority outgroup attitudes. This systematic review and meta-analysis addresses this gap by examining how different sources of socialisation (parents, peers, teachers, and the ethnic ingroup) and the content, type and format of the norms they transmit are associated with ethnic majority attitudes towards ethnic minorities. The analysis synthesizes 298 correlations from 75 studies published between 2010 and 2022, representing 46,034 respondents. Our findings reveal that associations between peer norms and attitudes are stronger than those with norms from parents, teachers, or the ethnic ingroup. Regarding content, intergroup contact norms show stronger associations with attitudes than intergroup attitude or inclusivity norms. Regarding type, norms containing both injunctive and descriptive elements exhibit stronger associations than those containing only one. Regarding format, perceived norms show stronger associations than actual norms. We conclude with a conceptual and methodological assessment of the research field, highlighting avenues for future study and advocating for reintroducing socialisation theory into the sociological study of interethnic relations.

Generative AI for vaccine misbelief correction: Insights from targeting extraversion and pseudoscientific beliefs.

Generative AI for vaccine misbelief correction: Insights from targeting extraversion and pseudoscientific beliefs.

Attitude towards Working in Rural Areas among Nursing Students in a Medical College of Kaski District

Nursing manpower shortage is a worldwide problem and it is vital for a nation to have nurses in all level of the health care delivery system. This study aims to assess the attitude towards working in rural areas after graduation among nursing students of Kaski. A descriptive cross-sectional research design was adopted for the study which was conducted in Gandaki Medical College; Rithepani among 75 undergraduate female nursing students of Gandaki Medical College. Total enumerative sampling technique was used. Structured self-administered questionnaire was used to collect data. Data were analyzed by employing both descriptive (frequency, mean, standard deviation) and inferential statistical methods (Chi-square test). The p≤0.05 was considered statistically significant. The study found that more than half (53.3%) of the respondents had positive attitude. However, nearly half (46.7%) had negative attitude towards working in rural areas after graduation. There was statistically significant association of age (p=0.04) and having a family member in rural service (p=0.02) with attitude towards working in rural areas after graduation. Nursing students of age less than 24 years (65.7%) and those with their family member in rural service (72.0%) were more likely to choose working in rural areas after graduation. Nearly half of nursing students had negative attitude to work in rural areas after graduation. This study concludes that having a family member in rural service and those with age less than 24 years had positive attitude to rural service.

Knowledge, attitude, and practice towards knee osteoarthritis: a regional study in Chinese patients.

Given the chronic nature of knee osteoarthritis and its reliance on self-management, patients' knowledge, attitudes, and practice (KAP) significantly influence their ability to effectively manage knee osteoarthritis. This study aimed to investigate patients' KAP towards knee osteoarthritis. This cross-sectional survey was conducted among patients with knee osteoarthritis, using a self-designed questionnaire. A total of 764 (96.47%) valid questionnaires enrolled, including 451 (59.03%) females, with a mean age of 48.28 ± 7.08years. Their mean KAP scores were 8.10 ± 3.67 (possible range 0-16), 26.40 ± 4.492 (possible range 9-45), and 20.67 ± 5.156 (possible range 7-35), respectively. Structural equation modelling showed that knowledge had direct effects on attitude and practice. Attitude was found to exert a direct impact on practice. Moreover, multivariate logistic regression showed that employment, family's monthly income, duration of knee osteoarthritis, and medication were independently associated with knowledge. Age, sex, employment, and coachfellow were independently associated with attitude. Sex, employment, and marital status were independently associated with practice (all P < 0.05). Patients had inadequate knowledge, negative attitude, and inactive practice towards knee osteoarthritis. Age, gender, employment, and marital status, monthly income, duration of knee osteoarthritis, medication, and coachfellow might be associated with their KAP. It is recommended to enhance clinical practice through patient education, personalized exercise plans, and tailored care based on individual patient profiles for improved knee osteoarthritis management. Key Points • Patients show inadequate KAP towards knee osteoarthritis. • Factors affecting KAP include age, gender, and income. • Need for patient education and personalized care in management.

Behavioural and psychological factors associated with pre-frailty in community-dwelling adults aged 40 and over: a cross-sectional study

Frailty and pre-frailty are major public health concerns. While frailty is typically associated with older adults, evidence suggests that pre-frailty commonly starts in middle-age. This study examined associations between behavioural and psychological correlates of pre-frailty and frailty in adults from 40 years to help identify at-risk individuals and inform interventions. Participants (N = 321, mean age = 56 (10.55), 83% female) completed questionnaires on frailty status, physical activity, co-morbidities, quality of life, loneliness, social isolation, and attitudes towards ageing. Participants were classified as non-frail (35%), pre-frail (60%), or frail (5%). One-way ANCOVAs, controlling for age, BMI, and co-morbidities, found that pre-frail participants reported feeling older than their chronological age (F = 2.37, p < .014, η2 = .398); and pre-frail and frail participants reported greater loneliness (F = 6.31, p = .022, η2 = .073) and negative attitudes toward ageing (F = 2.41, p = .004, η2 = .210) compared to non-frail participants. These findings indicate the need for targeted holistic interventions in middle age to prevent or delay frailty.

Remembrance, Rebellion, or Racism: Associations between Beliefs about the Confederate Flag’s Symbolism and Political Affiliations, and Racist Attitudes

Purpose: this research examines the extent to which beliefs that the Confederate flag stands for remembrance, rebellion, or racism are associated with political affiliations and racial attitudes (Study 1) and patriotism and beliefs about social hierarchies (Study 2). Methods: A nation-wide sample of White adults in the United States were recruited and completed a series of questionnaires about their beliefs about the Confederate flag, political affiliations, and racial attitudes (Study 1, N = 180) and patriotism and beliefs about social hierarchies (Study 2, N = 192). Results: We found that those who believe the Confederate flag stands for remembrance or rebellion had more positive feelings about the flag, had more conservative beliefs, were more patriotic, had more negative attitudes toward Black Americans, and were more likely to adhere to beliefs about social hierarchies. Implications: Findings of these studies have important implications for race relations in the United States.

On the discourse marker yěshì ‘also’ in Chinese constructions of blame

Abstract Blame is generally considered a social-cognitive act, in which the blamer expresses their negative evaluation and attitude to the ‘blamee’ and their actions. In the act of blame, the blamer takes a stance, presents it, and negotiates this stance with other participants within the discourse. Adopting a Construction Grammar approach, this paper identifies four constructions of blame in Modern Chinese that share a construction-initial sequence ‘np yěshì’. Despite their formal similarity and the general function of expressing blame, the four constructions differ in syntax, detailed semantics, and pragmatic functions. Moreover, our analysis shows that, in interaction with the clauses that follow, construction-initial ‘np yěshì’ marks an evaluative-affective stance, mitigates the effects of blame, and signals a stance shift in the discourse. In terms of discourse organization, it serves to introduce new and relevant information in the forthcoming discourse.

The day of civil resistance: KGB reaction to events in 1972

At the beginning of 1972, in comparison to other cities, Kaunas did not stand out in terms of the number of people persecuted or followed by the KGB, or in terms of any illegal movement. On the other hand, one shall not forget the well–known spirit of the ‘provisional capital’. Hence, the KGB paid Kaunas particular attention, but this did not prevent the self–immolation of Romas Kalanta or the unrest that followed. 14 of May became a day of constant tension and stand–by vigilance for the Soviet security services not only in Kaunas, but throughout Lithuania. The outbreak of youth protests was expected every year, but there was no tragic Kalanta–type catalyst. Not only because of the KGB’s very active negative attitude towards self–immolations, but also because of the unambiguous position of a large part of society towards suicide – whatever the reasons, there were almost none such drastic forms of protest in later years.

To Understand the Challenges Faced by Female Sex Workers in Seeking HealthCare in Miraj town (Maharashtra)

Background: Sex workers face challenges in terms of health, emotion, financial, and social because of their profession. Great majority of female sex workers tend to self-diagnose and seek over-the-counter medication from pharmacies or use traditional home remedies for sexually transmitted infections treatment rather than to visit health institution. Present study is conducted to understand the challenges faced by female sex workers in seeking health care. Methods: 138 female sex workers aged 18-45 years in urban area of Miraj city and registered with NGO were purposively selected from the reference population. Information was collected on characters like age, education, duration of sex work, place of work, and monthly income, any illness in last one year, treatment taken for the same, place of treatment, and problems encountered in taking treatment etc. by using pre-tested and structured questionnaire and in-depth interview guide. Results: Mean age of the participants was 34.82 ± 6.83 years. Mean duration of sex work was 11.18 years. 68.11% respondents had no formal education. 43.48% participants experienced one or other illness during last one year Challenges faced by the participants in seeking health care at government facilities included-unaware of health care facilities (10.86%), facilities far away from their place of work (15.94%), inconvenient OPD timings (26.08%) and inconvenient location of hospitals (9.42%). Fear of revealing occupation secret (20.28%), fear of result (6.52%) and negative attitude of health worker towards the participants (34.05%) were the obstacles for not seeking health care from government health facilities.

The 'Insta' effect on the intention to visit a destination: a case for conspicuous consumption?

This study analyzes the influence of expected social return derived from content shared on Instagram on the process of selecting a holiday destination. A research model was tested, entailing the impact of Positive and Negative Attitudes, Subjective Norm, Perceived Control, e-Word-of-Mouth (e-WOM) and Social Return on the intention to visit a destination. The findings showed that e-WOM can evoke both positive and negative attitudes, but these attitudes are not antecedents of destination choice. Instead, expected social return, e-WOM and subjective norm directly influence the intention to visit a destination, thus highlighting the importance of expected positive feedback. This paper expands the theory of planned behavior by reinforcing the importance of e-WOM as an antecedent of positive attitude formation. The paper also introduces expected social return via Instagram within the framework of the theory of conspicuous consumption. As a recommendation, destination and tourism managers should use social media marketing to generate hedonic and aspirational value for tourism destinations' positioning.

Mapping American Attitudes Towards Refugees and Immigrants: Insights into Anti-Refugee and Anti-Muslim Sentiments

The number of refugees across the world is increasing rapidly, as is the prevalence of Islamophobia. This flow of people and changing perceptions of them usually result in negative attitudes and hostility toward Muslims and refugees since they are perceived as the “outgroup”. This globally prevalent trend is usually attributable especially to refugees being perceived as a social, economic, or security threat. The goal of this paper is to understand Americans’ perception of outgroups and how they are related to anti-refugee and anti-Muslim sentiment by using a data-driven approach. We used latent class analysis (LCA) to determine whether there were any latent classes concerning outgroup attitudes in the US. Our results showed that people fall into four different categories regarding how they perceive Muslims, refugees, and minorities. At the same time, there were five different latent classes regarding how they perceive immigrants. This paper aims to explore this complex issue and help to reduce prejudice and intergroup conflict, ameliorate negative attitudes, and provide these groups with a stable social support system.