This study developed an eco-friendly approach for dyeing and multifunctionalizing wool fabric using natural dye curcumin extracted from Turmeric plant, and incorporating environmentally friendly additives, including ascorbic acid, salicylic acid, gallic acid, and tannic acid, as well as coconut oil, aloe vera oil, neem oil, and moringa oil, along with citric acid/Ammonium persulphate as an eco-friendly crosslinker in the finishing bath using IR dyeing equipment, followed by microwave fixation, which is widely applicable in textile finishing. The antibacterial activity, UV functionality, wettability, and color strength were evaluated. The results showed that the combined treatments provided excellent fastness properties, remarkable UV protection, and improved color strength and antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Therefore, the multifunctional coloured wool fabrics obtained can be efficiently used in eco-friendly and hygienic textile applications.

Evaluation of activation, performance and reusability between eggshell-derived heterogenous and homogenous catalysts for neem oil biodiesel

Herbal body lotion are prepared using standard emulsification methods, ensuring a smooth and stable consistency. Herbal body lotion is made from plant-predicted ingredients help to maintain skin hydration, texture and support the skins natural healing processes. It is the requirement and composition of herbal product in day-to-day life. The only motive - behind to choose the mixture of herbal product was to bring effectiveness of these formulation without side-effects. Herbal body lotion can be precious tool in maintaining healthy skin and including skin related problems.it has physiochemical evaluation including texture, viscosity, PH balance, spreadability, safety and stability. Developing and testing a herbal moisturizer using neem, hibiscus, tulsi,aloe vera, glycerine and ROSEHIP OIL are among the goals of this study.

Background: The neem tree (Azadirachta indica) is an evergreen species native to regions such as India and Pakistan and is also cultivated in parts of the Americas. Products derived from neem have numerous applications, particularly in skin, hair, and nail care, as well as in food preservation, due to their ability to inhibit the growth of various microorganisms. Objective: Three organic solvents, hexane, ethanol, and petroleum ether (80-‎‎100°C), were used to extract neem oil from dried, ground seeds using the Soxhlet extraction method. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was employed to determine the fatty acid composition of the extracted oil. The antibacterial activity of neem seed oil was evaluated against four bacterial strains (Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli) and one yeast (Candida spp.) at three different concentrations. Results: The extraction yields were 44.89% using petroleum ether, 42.63% using hexane, and 39.17% using ethanol. Analysis revealed that long-chain fatty acids accounted for 19.77% of the neem seed oil composition, including palmitoleic acid (14.23%), oleic acid (2.49%), palmitic acid (1.50%), stearic acid (0.90%), linoleic acid (1.50%), and linolenic acid (0.05%). Neem seed oil exhibited strong antibacterial activity. Staphylococcus aureus showed inhibition zones of 36, 30, and 28 mm at concentrations of 1000, 500, and 250 µg/mL, respectively. Bacillus spp. demonstrated inhibition zones of 28 , 26 , and 24 mm at the same concentrations. Escherichia coli exhibited inhibition zones of 26 , 22 , and 10 mm, respectively. Lower inhibitory effects were observed against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, with inhibition zones of 18 , 19 , and 3 mm. Novelty: Neem seed oil represents an effective, sustainable, and environmentally friendly alternative to synthetic antimicrobial agents. Conclusion: Neem seeds are a valuable source of oil rich in long-chain fatty acids with significant therapeutic potential. The oil demonstrated notable antibacterial and antifungal activity, emphasizing its potential importance for medical and pharmaceutical applications. Keywords: Neem tree, Oil extraction, Fatty acid and Antimicrobial, antifungal activity, long-chain fatty acids.

A field experiment was conducted during the Kharif season of 2024 at the Chemical Agriculture Research Farm, Narayan Bagh, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi (U.P.), to evaluate the efficacy of various fungicidal, botanical, and biological treatments against powdery mildew (Erysiphe cichoracearum) in okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.). The study was laid out in a Randomized Block Design with nine treatments and three replications, using the susceptible variety UPRI-900. Disease incidence and severity were recorded at four intervals: initial appearance and after three successive spray applications. Results revealed that Sulphur 0.3% (T1) was the most effective treatment, achieving the lowest mean disease incidence (17.80%) and highest per cent disease control (63.94%), followed by Hexaconazole 0.1% (T2) and Propiconazole 0.1% (T3). Biopesticides like Neem oil (T5) and Trichoderma spp. (T6, T7) showed moderate efficacy but were less effective under high disease pressure. Dinocap 4% (T8) performed poorly, recording the highest disease severity among treated plots. The untreated control (T9) exhibited maximum disease progression, underlining the need for timely disease management. The study concludes that Sulphur, Hexaconazole, and Propiconazole can be effectively integrated into powdery mildew management strategies in okra, while biocontrol agents offer sustainable alternatives under low to moderate disease pressure.

ABSTRACT The study examines the tribological characteristics of various oil blends developed from the incorporation of ZDDP additive at various proportions (0.10–3 wt.%) in a 75% Neem seed oil (NSO) − 25% polyalphaolefin (PAO6) base oil blend. The tribological characteristics of these formulations were evaluated using a four-ball tester and its effectiveness are compared with SAE20W40 to determine the ideal ZDDP concentration. The blend with 1 wt.% ZDDP (NPZ4) exhibited superior performance, resulting in a 21.5% reduction in coefficient of friction and an 11% decrease in wear scar diameter when compared to the base formulation. The wear scar morphology and elemental analysis validated the formation of a stable Zn–P–S-rich tribofilm, which significantly improved wear protection. The further analysis of the lubrication regime using minimum film thickness and lambda (λ) ratio indicated that the blend NPZ4 works within the boundary-to-mixed lubrication regime (hmin = 155.42 nm, λ = 0.51), nearing the performance characteristics of SAE20W40. The selected ideal blend was then subjected to further experimental analysis in hydrodynamic plain journal bearing at different speeds while maintaining a constant load. The pressure profile trend for all oil samples was consistent across all situations, with the mineral oil displaying a predominant profile, with the ideal blend demonstrated superior characteristics compared to the base oil sample. The application of two-way ANOVA for statistical validation showed a significant impact of lubricant formulation and operating speed on bearing pressure performance, with a R² value of 95.1%.

Damping‐off disease, caused by Pythium aphanidermatum , is a serious problem in papaya nurseries, leading to substantial seedling losses. Although Pythium species have been reported in various crops in Punjab, Pakistan, the causal agent of papaya damping‐off had not been conclusively identified, nor had an integrated management strategy been assessed. This study aimed to characterize the pathogen using morphological and molecular tools and to evaluate chemical and botanical control options. Surveys conducted in five major papaya nurseries recorded disease incidence ranging from 13% to 60%. The pathogen isolated from symptomatic seedlings was identified as P. aphanidermatum based on morphological features and confirmed through ITS and Cox II gene sequences. In vitro assays revealed that Vidal and neem oil were the most effective treatments, reducing mycelial growth to 12.10 and 21.92 mm, respectively, at the highest concentrations tested (600 mg a.i. L −1 for fungicides and 20% v/v for neem products). In greenhouse experiments, combination treatments Vidal + Epic and neem oil + neem leaf extract resulted in the lowest disease incidence (11.67–18.17%) and improved seedling growth. These findings highlight the potential of integrated chemical and botanical approaches for effective management of papaya damping‐off and indicate the need for further field‐level validation.

A reconnaissance survey was conducted in Barmer, Pali, Churu and Jodhpur District of Rajasthan to document the occurrence of the Konkan Moringa, Moringa concanensis Nimmo and collection of seeds for multiplication as this tree is categorised under threatened species in Rajasthan. Seeds were collected from the marked trees and raised seedlings in poly house with an overall germination of 62%. Physical parameters of pods like pod length, pod width, seeds per pod were also recorded. Findings revealed that average pod length varied from 10.3-24.0 cm with an average of 17.3 cm. Pod width varied from 0.9-2.6 cm with an average of 1.63 cm. Number of seeds per pod varied from 5.0-14.0 with an average of 8.9. Seedlings of approximately 45-60 days old exhibited notable infestation by the Ash weevil Myllocerus viridanus Fabr. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a defoliating pest was recorded. The occurrence of this Ash weevil M. viridanus Fabr. on M. concanensis reported here represents a new host association not previously described in the literature. The adult of Ash weevils caused characteristic marginal and interveinal notching on tender leaves, whereas larvae fed on fine roots, leading to stunted growth and poor plant vigour. Preliminary damage assessment revealed significant leaf loss in infested plants. All seedlings examined exhibited the presence of the pest, resulting in a 100% infestation incidence across the population. The mean number of damaged leaves per seedling was approximately 25.29, corresponding to percent infested leaves of 77.6% relative to total foliage, indicating that more than three-fourths of the foliage was affected. This high proportion of damage showed that plants were in severe infestation pressure, with the majority of seedlings experiencing substantial defoliation. An eco-friendly management approach using neem oil was evaluated and application at 1% concentration proved highly effective in significantly reducing foliar damage.

Organic vegetable growers face significant challenges in managing plant-parasitic nematodes, particularly root-knot nematodes (RKN; Meloidogyne spp.), because of restrictions on the use of synthetic chemicals. This study evaluated the efficacy of seven commercially available Organic Materials Review Institute-certified bionematicides against Meloidogyne incognita under greenhouse and field conditions. A cucumber plasticulture field study was also conducted to compare the efficacy of four best-performing bionematicides, including azadirachtin, cold-pressed neem oil, thyme oil and saponins of Quillaja saponaria, identified in the greenhouse study and a chemical nematicde (oxamyl) using two application regimes: calendar-based (following the product label) and nematode life-cycle-based (following the M. incognita life cycle using degree-days assessment). In the greenhouse study with tomato, azadirachtin and thyme oil significantly reduced M. incognita root galling and reproduction factor (final nematode population/initial nematode population) compared with a positive control. In the field trial with cucumber, the nematode life cycle was completed in 23 days during the spring season and 24 days during the fall season, accumulating 380 and 398 degree-days, respectively, above a base temperature of 10 °C. For calendar-based applications, only azadirachtin significantly reduced nematode density, whereas for life-cycle-based applications, all treatments except saponins of Q. saponaria were effective. Oxamyl was more effective when applied according to the nematode life cycle than on a calendar-based regime. Life-cycle-based applications generally outperformed calendar-based applications based on numerical values, even in cases in which the differences were not significant. For the galling index, calendar-based applications of azadirachtin and cold-pressed neem oil reduced the galling index more than life-cycle-based applications at mid-season. At the end of the season, only azadirachtin under the calendar-based application differed significantly from the control, while all other treatments (except saponins of Q. saponaria) had lower root galling indices than the calendar-based applications. These findings indicate that both application regimes can be used to manage M. incognita in organic farming systems. Of particular significance is the novel life-cycle-based approach developed in this study, which may confer enhanced sustainability benefits by optimizing nematicide application timing and reducing treatment frequency, ultimately leading to a decline in soil nematode population densities. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.

In Pakistan, the cotton mealy bug (Phenacoccus solenensis Tinsley), (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), has become a devastating pest of cotton in District Khairpur especially in Sindh. This study explores its biology, morphology, feeding habits, destruction possibilities and sustainable management practices in area agro- ecological factors. Field surveys showed that there was a high teen-age population growth especially in warm months and that the infestation was highest in flowering and boll forming seasons. Diagnostic features that were verified by morphological studies included waxy secretions, segmented antennae and sexual dimorphism. This feeding behavior was characterized by sac removal of tender shoots and bolls resulting in chlorosis, stunted growth, and premature leaf fall followed by losses in yield of more than 35% percent. Trials of sustainable management proved that integrated pest management (IPM) which involves crop sanitation, sprays of neem oil, and biological control agents coupled with selective insecticides were able to get more than 90 and 42% increases in infestation and yield respectively. These findings offer knowledge of regions to reduce the risks of adopting resilient cotton production in the Sindh region.

Wax scale insects (Coccus spp.) are major pests of mango (Mangifera indica L.), causing direct damage through sap feeding and indirectly promoting sooty mold growth, which reduces photosynthesis and fruit marketability. This study evaluated the effectiveness of organic treatments neem oil with horticultural soap solution and wood vinegar, compared with a chemical control (imidacloprid) in managing wax scale infestations on TOM EJC mango orchards. Data were collected over eight weeks on wax scale population density, leaf health, sooty mold incidence, and treatment costs. The results showed significant reductions in wax scale populations across all treatments except the control (ANOVA, P < 0.0001). The chemical treatment completely eliminated wax scales by Week 5, while wood vinegar and neem oil achieved 99.1% and 98.3% reductions, respectively. Sooty mold incidence declined in parallel, with chemical treatment (94.0%) and wood vinegar (92.5%) outperforming neem oil (88.3%). Cost analysis revealed that wood vinegar was the most economical option (LKR 1,200/ha) though labor-intensive, neem oil represented a moderate-cost solution (LKR 2,300/ha), and chemical treatment, though effective, had higher costs (LKR 4,500/ha) and raised concerns regarding environmental impact. These findings indicate that wood vinegar offers a cost-effective, eco-friendly alternative to chemical pesticides, with efficacy levels comparable to synthetic control. Neem oil also presents a viable organic solution, particularly where moderate costs and labor inputs are acceptable. Overall, the results support the integration of organic treatments into sustainable pest management strategies for mango cultivation.

Leaf blight is one of the diseases prevalent in zucchini fields in Iraq. This study investigated the etiological agent of zucchini leaf blight in agricultural fields across the Erbil, Diyala and Salah Al-Din governorates of Iraq. The fungus Alternaria cucumerina was found to be the predominant cause, with a percentage of appearance reaching 70.7 % in the samples and a frequency rate of 55 %. The Eac-12 strain showed the highest virulence among the 44 fungal isolates, with disease severity reaching 80.5 % under greenhouse conditions. Copper sulphate and neem oil showed 100 % efficacy in inhibiting pathogenic fungal growth in vitro, followed by plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGB), Azotobacter vinelandii and Azospirillum brasilense. In the greenhouse, the dual inoculum treatment of A. brasilense and A. vinelandii isolates significantly reduced disease incidence and severity. The quadruple combination treatment (copper sulphate, neem oil, A. brasilense and A. vinelandii) achieved the highest disease control rate, with disease incidence and severity recorded at 9 % and 4.3 % respectively. This study demonstrated that the rhizobacterial isolates of A. brasilense and A. vinelandii induced disease resistance in zucchini plants through elevated peroxidase levels, as well as the effectiveness of neem oil and copper sulphate in controlling the pathogenic fungus A. cucumerina.

Bamboo is a potential material in the furniture, construction, and craft industries due to its rapid growth and good physical and mechanical properties. However, its vulnerability to attacks by wood–destroying organisms, particularly termites, necessitates preservation to extend its service life. This study evaluated the resistance of gombong bamboo to subterranean and drywood termites, as well as its color changes. The modification treatments involve boric acid equivalent (BAE) impregnation, heat treatment (60 °C, 150 °C, and 180 °C), and vegetable oils (linseed and neem oil). Statistical analysis using one-way ANOVA was performed to determine the significance of each treatment factor on weight loss and colour parameters, followed by Duncan’s Multiple Range Test for mean comparison. In addition, color change and the chemical composition of the most effective oil treatment in terms of termite resistance were analysed using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). The results showed that BAE, neem oil, and the combined treatments (BAE-vegetable oils) effectively improved bamboo resistance to both termite tests. The synergy between BAE impregnation, heat treatment (180 °C), and neem oil produced the highest level of termite resistance. Heat treatment at elevated temperatures also caused significant colour changes, particularly a reduction in brightness (L*) and an increase in dark brown tones attributed to thermal degradation of hemicellulose and extractives. GC-MS analysis revealed that neem oil was dominated by fatty acids and other compounds known for their antimicrobial, antifeedant, and termite-repellent activities, which likely contributed to the enhanced biological performance of the treated bamboo. Keywords: bamboo modification, bio-based treatment, impregnation, sustainable bamboo utilization

Thrips, which historically caused minimal damage to Moroccan citrus orchards, have become a significant concern since 2018. A study was conducted from March to July 2021 in a citrus orchard in the Marrakech region and aimed to identify thrips species and natural enemies, monitor population dynamics, and evaluate alternative control methods. Two trials were conducted on the effect of several products on thrips species in the citrus orchards; the first one (chemical trial) where Flonicamib, Spirotetramat, Formetanate, Acetamiprid, Cyantaraniliprole, and Abamectine were assessed, the second trial (biological control), Pyrethrum, Neem oil, Beauveria bassiana, a mixture of Azadirachtin and paraffinic mineral oil, a mixture of Pyrethrum and neem oil, and a mixture Pyrethrum and zadirachtin were evaluated. Six thrips species were recorded: Frankliniella occidentalis, Thrips tabaci, Pezothrips kellyanus, Scirtothrips sp., Aeolothrips sp., and Haplothrips sp. Population peaks varied by citrus variety, with adult thrips reaching their highest levels during petal fall for clementine Nules (4 ± 1 individuals/beating) and during summer shoot growth for mandarin Afourer (8.8 ± 1 individuals/ eating), while larval populations peaked 10 days later on Nules but remained low on Afourer. Four predatory; Coccinella septempunctata, Orius sp., Chrysoperla carnea, and Aeolothrips sp. were found on citrus trees and their population peaked during petal fall. Formetanate sowing the highest efficacy (88.7% after 3 days), while Spirotetramat was less effective to control thrips species. Beauveria bassiana and the mixture of Azadirachtin and paraffinic mineral oil were two treatments that showed the highest significant efficacy (75.9% and 78.82 %, respectively, after two weeks). These findings underscore the increasing threat of thrips species in commercial Moroccan citrus orchards and highlight the potential of integrated pest management strategies that combine chemical and biological control for sustainable thrips management.

The depletion of fossil fuels and the growing concerns over environmental degradation have stimulated research into renewable biofuels as sustainable alternatives to conventional diesel. This study presents an experimental investigation and optimization of a compression ignition (C.I.) engine operated with various biodiesel–diesel blends derived from cottonseed, Jatropha and Neem oils. Experiments were conducted using a single-cylinder, 4-stroke, direct injection (DI), water-cooled diesel engine under varying loads, speeds and blend ratios. The Design of Experiments (DOE) approach was implemented using the Taguchi L9 orthogonal array to evaluate the combined influence of control parameters such as blend ratio, engine load and speed on engine performance indicators—namely Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE), Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) and emission characteristics. Grey Relational Analysis (GRA) was employed for multi-response optimization to identify the ideal operational parameters for maximum efficiency and minimal emissions. Results reveal that a B20 cottonseed biodiesel blend at 195 bar injection pressure provided optimal performance, achieving a peak brake thermal efficiency of 34.01% with reduced specific fuel consumption and smoke density. Comparative analysis with Jatropha and Neem biodiesels confirmed cottonseed biodiesel’s superior trade-off between performance and emission control. The developed mathematical model for thermal efficiency validated experimental results with minimal error, demonstrating the potential of cottonseed biodiesel as a viable renewable substitute for conventional diesel fuel.

Biodiesel is popular as an eco-friendly fossil fuel alternative. Neem oil is manufactured from Azadirachta indica seeds. Transesterifying triglycerides with alcohol in the presence of a synthesized CaO nanocatalyst is the most common biodiesel synthesis procedure-recent advances, difficulties, and prospects in laser feedstock pretreatment to boost reactivity and reduce energy use. Oil pre-treatment with a 540-nm green laser is cost-effective and environmentally friendly. This study examined neem oil with and without laser pretreatment for biodiesel synthesis. CaO nanocatalysts were synthesised using Sol-gel and characterised using XRD and SEM. According to catalyst recyclability, the CaO nanocatalyst did not lose activity after five reuses. The CaO nanocatalyst retained 97.7% of its initial activity after five reuses, as confirmed by the small decrease in biodiesel synthesis from 97% to 94.8%. The study went through the optimization of batch-based biodiesel production named as Laser Neem Oil Methyl Ester's (LNOME's) at various process parameters such as reaction temperature (40-70°C), reaction time (60-150min), catalyst weight percentage (0.5-1.25 wt%), and methanol-to-oil molar ratio (10-25). Neem oil biodiesel performed best at 50°C. After 90min, both feedstocks achieve their maximum FAME conversion rate. The ideal conversion ratio for neem oil biodiesel to methanol was found to be 1:20. Because this process is reversible, the amount of biodiesel converted increases according to the amount of methanol utilized. The neem oil produced 97% Biodiesel when a laser was used, and 94% when it wasn't. Laser processing and sol-gel nanocatalysts are also showcased in this novel work. Combining the efficiency of nanocatalytic processing with environmentally friendly processing methods, this method brings a double breakthrough to the field of reaction chemistry. Due to their reduced reaction time and better yield (97%). Furthermore, the characterization of both the feedstocks and the synthesized biodiesel was determined by using GC-MS, FTIR, and H-NMR. Laser pretreatment shows promising enhancement of conversion efficiency and reduced reaction time, potentially leading to higher-quality biodiesel.

Abstract Although neem ( Azadirachta indica ) and rosemary ( Rosmarinus officinalis ) oils have repellent properties against stored grain insects, their effectiveness is limited due to their volatility and sensitivity to heat and light, which causes them to be released from grains quickly. In this study, a bioinsecticide was formulated by impregnating optimally silica, derived from rice husk ash, with mechanically extracted oil from neem and hydro-distilled rosemary. The resulting formulation was tested for its ability to control Sitophilus zeamais (Motschulsky) during storage of maize grain. The silica, which had some surface functional groups, controlled the populations of S. zeamais in stored maize grains within 12 days of exposure. Compounding the silica with neem and rosemary oils further maintained these functional groups and produced a synergistic effect in controlling the pests in stored maize grains. These results were only comparable to those obtained with the use of synthetic pesticides after 5 days of application. The results indicate that the inert surface functional groups caused the cuticles of the insect pests to dehydrate, ultimately leading to their death. Overall, silica derived from rice husk ash and impregnated with neem and rosemary oils could be a promising alternative to synthetic pesticides for storing maize grains, as it retained more than 85% of their germinative capacity even after prolonged storage.

The experiment was conducted during the rabi seasons (October–February) of 2022–2024 in the districts of Warangal, Hanamkonda, Mulugu, and Jayashankar Bhupalpally of Telangana State to evaluate the efficacy of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) against black thrips (Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood, 1919) in chilli (Capsicum annuum L.). Black thrips are a major pest limiting chilli productivity, and conventional farming practices often provide sub-optimal control and economic returns. The IPM package combined black plastic mulching, neem oil (10,000 ppm, 1 ml l-1), Beauveria bassiana, & Lecanicillium lecanii at 5 g l-1, and selective chemical insecticides (Spinosad and Thiacloprid) applied at 15-day intervals starting 30 days after transplanting, totaling three sprays per season. A total of 100 farmers (25 per district) participated, and results were compared with conventional Farmer Practice (FP). Across three years, IPM significantly reduced thrips populations by 45–50% and increased yield by 24–26%, while economic analysis revealed higher net returns and B:C ratios (2.72–2.90) compared to FP (1.75–1.83). Technology gaps ranged from 0.6–2.1 t ha-1, extension gaps from 2.8–4.5 t ha-1, and yield gaps from 24.3–27.9%, indicating untapped potential under conventional practices. Mulugu and Hanamkonda approached near-optimal yields, whereas Warangal and Jayashankar Bhupalpally require targeted extension and localized IPM optimization. IPM effectively suppressed thrips, increased chilli yields by 19–33%, and nearly doubled profitability. IPM proved a sustainable, cost-efficient, climate-smart strategy, narrowing yield gaps and enhancing productivity across districts.

Natural oils, particularly essential and fixed oils derived from plants, have garnered increasing interest as effective antimicrobial agents and natural preservatives across the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. This review explores the chemical composition, antimicrobial mechanisms, and practical applications of key natural oils such as tea tree, clove, oregano, lemongrass, neem, and coconut oil. These oils exhibit broad-spectrum activity against bacteria, fungi, and viruses due to their bioactive constituents like terpenoids, phenolics, and aldehydes. Their modes of action include disruption of microbial membranes, interference with enzymatic functions, inhibition of biofilm formation, and induction of oxidative stress. Natural oils serve as promising alternatives to synthetic preservatives, addressing consumer concerns over chemical toxicity and environmental impact. In food preservation, they effectively extend shelf life and inhibit spoilage microorganisms. In pharmaceuticals, they are utilized for their antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing properties. Despite their advantages, challenges such as variability in composition, potential toxicity, and regulatory compliance must be addressed to ensure safe and standardized use. This review emphasizes the need for continued research and regulatory oversight to harness the full potential of natural oils as sustainable and effective antimicrobial and preservative agents.

Optimising the yield of neem oil biodiesel using response surface methodology and grey wolf optimisation