Nectar Research Articles

Community Science Reveals High Diversity of Nectaring Plants Visited by Painted Lady Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in California Sage Scrub.

California's sage scrub habitats support a diversity of nectar and host plants for migrating and resident populations of painted lady butterflies (Vanessa cardui) throughout all seasons. North America experiences spring V. cardui migrations involving butterflies totaling in the millions in some years. These irruptive years are thought to be driven by winter weather patterns at breeding grounds near the US-Mexico border and due to their irregularity, it is difficult to study floral resource use along the migration route. Here we used the community science platform iNaturalist to quantify patterns in V. cardui nectar resource use in sage scrub over time and space during irruptive and nonirruptive years. We identified over 329 different nectaring plant species of varying functional types (72% native to California) visited by adult V. cardui, 195 of which had not been previously identified as known nectar plants for V. cardui. Vanessa cardui butterflies were observed in similar locations regardless of whether an irruptive migration occurred, indicating the presence of either sparse migrants or resident populations across California. Moreover, irruptive years were positively correlated with warmer and wetter local conditions at observation locations. Our results provide new insights into patterns of floral resource use by North American V. cardui by harnessing the power of community science data and while highlighting the factors associated with its North American migration.

Structural Stability of Ant-plant Mutualistic Networks Mediated by Extrafloral Nectaries: Looking at the Effects of Forest Fragmentation in the Brazilian Amazon

Rainforest fragmentation drastically affects biodiversity and species composition, mainly due to habitat loss. Several studies have already shown the effects of forest fragmentation on plant and ant communities. To date, however, there is limited empirical knowledge of how forest fragmentation affects ant-plant interaction in networks. We investigated the effects of the configuration of rainforest fragments on the structure of ant-plant interaction networks mediated by extrafloral nectaries (EFNs). We carried out this study in ten forest fragments, ranging in size from approximately 5 to 3,000 ha, located in the Brazilian Amazon. In each fragment we established a plot of 6,250 m2, in which all ant-plant interactions were recorded, and calculated the following network descriptors: number of interactions, network size, network specialization, diversity of interactions, and nestedness. We used four explanatory variables to investigate the effects of forest fragmentation on these network descriptors: three metrics of the configuration of fragments (i.e., fragment area, edge irregularity, and connectivity) and the forest structure within each fragment, represented by canopy cover. We did not detect any effect of the explanatory variables on the network descriptors. The structural stability of the networks sampled in forest fragments with different configurations is possibly related to the observed constancy of ant species in the central core of highly interacting species. Our results corroborate other studies highlighting the structural stability of these facultative ant-plant networks mediated by EFNs in different spatial and temporal gradients. Nonetheless, the low constancy of plant species in the generalist core should be understood as a warning, mainly because the functionality of this protective mutualism (i.e., food secretions in exchange for protection against herbivory) remains unknown.

Host-tree selection by the ant garden-initiating arboreal ponerine Neoponera goeldii.

Host-tree selection by the ant garden-initiating arboreal ponerine Neoponera goeldii.

Croton sertanejus, a new species from Seasonally Dry Tropical Forest in Brazil, and redescription of C. echioides (Euphorbiaceae)

During a taxonomic study of the species of Croton sect. Adenophylli occurring in Brazil, approximately 140 collections usually identified as Croton echioides, C. rhamnifolius or C. rhamnifolioides caught our attention due to the distinct morphology of vegetative and reproductive organs. After the analysis of these collections, we concluded that they represent a new species, C. sertanejus Sodré & M.J.Silva sp. nov., which was also corroborated by an anatomical study of their leaves. This new species can be differentiated by pseudomonopodial branching, leaves with petioles up to 1.7 cm long, 4–6 subsessile nectary glands and indumentum of sessile trichomes on both surfaces. Detailed descriptions, including details of leaf anatomy, are provided for C. sertanejus sp. nov. and C. echioides, its closely related species. We also formalize the synonymization of C. kalkmannii under C. echioides and re-evaluate the typification of these names, in order to better clarify their taxonomic status.

Identification of characteristic markers for monofloral honey of Astragalus membranaceus var. mongholicus Hsiao: A combined untargeted and targeted MS-based study

Astragalus membranaceus var. mongholicus Hsiao (Am) is a widely used traditional Chinese herbal medicine. The monofloral honey from Am plant nectar collected by honeybees (MH-Am) has potential medicinal activities. Quality control of MH-Am requires discovery of characteristic markers. In this study, calycosin and formononetin were identified as reliable chemical markers for MH-Am authentication, which were shared with its plant (P-Am), but absent in other honeys based on untargeted mass spectrometry (MS) analysis. The contents of calycosin and formononetin in MH-Am, other honeys and P-Am were determined through a targeted MS-based quantitative approach. Furthermore, free radical scavenging assays showed that calycosin functioned directly in the antioxidative activity of MH-Am. Thus, calycosin has great potential to be certified as a bioactive marker contributing to future quality control of commercial MH-Am products.

Comprehensive investigation of the content and the origin of matrine-type alkaloids in Chinese honeys

A HPLC-MS/MS method for simultaneous determination of four matrine-type alkaloids (matrine, oxymatrine, sophocarpine and sophoridine) in honey was established and was applied to 567 Chinese honey samples. The overall detection rate was 61.0 % and all eight Sophora viciifolia Hance honey samples were detected with the average content of 1183.3 μg/kg. Among 383 Acacia honey samples, matrine-type alkaloids have the highest detection rates in Gansu (98.8 %) and Shaanxi (86.5 %) provinces, which were significantly correlated with the distribution of S. viciifolia Hance. Moreover, matrine-type alkaloids in fruits and flowers of S. viciifolia Hance were as high as 7.06 g/kg and 2.65 g/kg respectively. The melissopalynological analysis showed that the concentration of oxymatrine was positively correlated with the pollen frequency of S. viciifolia Hance (R2 = 0.737) in representative Acacia honey samples. It can be concluded that the matrine-type alkaloids in Chinese honeys come from the nectariferous plants S. viciifolia Hance.

Neonicotinoids residues in the honey circulating in Chinese market and health risk on honey bees and human

China is the largest beekeeping and honey consumption country globally. Neonicotinoids in honey can pose adverse effects on honey bees and human, but data on neonicotinoids residues in honey and its health risk remain limited in China. A total of 94 honey samples were selected from Chinese market based on production region and sale volume in 2020. Eight neonicotinoids and four metabolites were determined by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Health risk of neonicotinoids in honey on honey bees and human was assessed by hazard quotient (HQ) and hazard index (HI). Neonicotinoids and their metabolites were overall detected in 97.9% of honey samples. Acetamiprid, thiamethoxam, and imidacloprid were top three dominant neonicotinoids in honey with the detection frequencies of 92.6%, 90.4%, and 73.4%, respectively. For honey bees, 78.7% of honey samples had a HI larger than one based on the safety threshold value of sublethal effects. Top three neonicotinoids with the highest percent proportion of HQ larger than one for honey bees were acetamiprid (43.6%), imidacloprid (31.9%), and thiamethoxam (24.5%) and their maximum HQs were 420, 210, and 41, respectively. Based on oral median lethal doses for honey bees, both HQ and HI were lower than one in all honey samples. For human, both HQ and HI were lower than one based on acceptable daily intakes in all honey samples. Neonicotinoids concentrations and detection frequencies in honey samples and its health risk varied with production region, commercial value of nectariferous plants, number of nectariferous plants, and sale price. The results suggested extensive residues of neonicotinoids in honey in Chinese market with a variation by the characteristics of honey. The residues were likely to affect the health of honey bees, but showed no detectable effect on human health.

Coryanthes macrantha (Orchidaceae: Stanhopeinae) and their floral and extrafloral secretory structures: an anatomical and phytochemical approach.

Coryanthes is one of the most fascinating genera of Stanhopeinae (Orchidaceae) because of its complex pollination mechanism and the peculiar structures of its flowers. Although Coryanthes macrantha is widely studied, investigation of the secretory structures and floral biology is important to understand the mechanisms and ecology of pollination, which deserve attention despite the difficulties of collecting fertile material in nature. We conducted a morpho-anatomical analysis of the floral and extrafloral secretory structures of C. macrantha to better understand the secretory structures, contribute to the knowledge of its floral biology and/or pollination processes and understand the ecological function of these structures. The analysis revealed that C. macrantha has epidermal osmophores with unicellular papillae that were foraged by male Eulaema bees, floral nectaries in the sepals and extrafloral nectaries in the bracts. In both the floral and extrafloral nectaries, the nectar is exuded by the stomata. Azteca ants foraged the bract and sepal nectaries in pre-anthesis and post-anthesis. We also described the secretory epidermis of pleuridia, and the mode of secretion of osmophores and nectaries and found that they attract specific foraging agents.

Lack of Self-Medication by Fungus Infected Lasius platythorax (Formicidae, Formicinae) Ants in a Multitrophic Experiment

In laboratory conditions, ants can combat a pathogen infection by means of the medicinal use of reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, it is still unknown where they obtain medicinal compounds in the wild and how they use them. Due to an upregulation of ROS in response to herbivory, aphid-infested plants have been suggested to be a potential source of ROS for ants in the wild. We investigated whether infection would cause Lasius platythorax ants to change their foraging on extrafloral nectar on aphid-infested plants. We found no clear evidence for the ants significantly changing their foraging behaviour in response to the pathogen, nor for the extrafloral nectar to contain ROS. The aphids in our experiment had a relatively high concentration of ROS and future research should determine whether predation on aphids could be a potential source of both protein and ROS needed to combat a disease.

Re-circumscription of the mimosoid genus Entada including new combinations for all species of the phylogenetically nested Elephantorrhiza (Leguminosae, Caesalpinioideae, mimosoid clade).

Recent phylogenomic analyses of 997 nuclear genes support the long-held view that the genus Entada is congeneric with Elephantorrhiza. Entada is resolved as monophyletic only if the genus Elephantorrhiza is subsumed within it. The two genera were distinguished solely by relatively minor differences in the mode of dehiscence of the fruits (a craspedium separating into one-seeded endocarp segments in Entada versus a craspedium with the whole fruit valve breaking away from the persistent replum in Elephantorrhiza) and the craspedial fruit type itself provides a shared synapomorphy for the re-circumscribed Entada. Here, we provide a synopsis of Entada, including 11 new combinations in total, for the eight species, one subspecies and one variety previously placed in Elephantorrhiza, as well as a new combination for a subspecies of Entadarheedei Spreng. not previously dealt with when Entadapursaetha DC. was placed in synonymy. These new combinations are: Entadaburkei (Benth.) S.A. O'Donnell & G.P. Lewis, comb. nov.; Entadaelephantina (Burch.) S.A. O'Donnell & G.P. Lewis, comb. nov.; Entadagoetzei (Harms) S.A. O'Donnell & G.P. Lewis, comb. nov.; Entadagoetzeisubsp.lata (Brenan & Brummitt) S.A. O'Donnell & G.P. Lewis, comb. nov.; Entadaobliqua (Burtt Davy) S.A. O'Donnell & G.P. Lewis, comb. nov.; Entadapraetermissa (J.H. Ross) S.A. O'Donnell & G.P. Lewis, comb. nov.; Entadarangei (Harms) S.A. O'Donnell & G.P. Lewis, comb. nov.; Entadarheedeisubsp.sinohimalensis (Grierson & D.G. Long) S.A. O'Donnell & G.P. Lewis, comb. nov.; Entadaschinziana (Dinter) S.A. O'Donnell & G.P. Lewis, comb. nov.; Entadawoodii (E. Phillips) S.A. O'Donnell & G.P. Lewis, comb. nov.; and Entadawoodiivar.pubescens (E. Phillips) S.A. O'Donnell & G.P. Lewis, comb. nov. We provide a revised circumscription of the genus Entada which now comprises 40 species distributed pantropically, with the greatest diversity of species in tropical Africa. We present a complete taxonomic synopsis, including a map showing the global distribution of the genus and photographs showing variation amongst species in habit, foliage, flowers and fruits. A short discussion about extrafloral nectaries, mainly observed in the Madagascan species, is presented.

Antibiotic residues in honey in the Chinese market and human health risk assessment

China is a major country of producing, exporting and consuming honey. However, the data about antibiotic residues in honey and their health risk remain limited. This study collected 94 honey samples circulating in the Chinese market, determined 20 common antibiotics from four categories in relation to the characteristics of honey samples, and assessed the potential human health risk. Antibiotics were overall found in 84.0 % of honey with a median concentration of 0.09 ng/g. Two or more antibiotics were simultaneously found in 56.2 % of honey. Quinolones were found in 69.1 % of honey, followed by sulfonamides (44.7 %), tetracyclines (26.6 %), and phenicols (1.1 %). Honey produced in China and honey with a lower price had higher detection frequencies and/or concentrations of quinolones, sulfonamides, or sum of all antibiotics. A lower detection frequency was seen for sum of all antibiotics in honey from commercial than non-commercial crops. The maximum HIs based on microbiological and toxicological effects were 1.80 × 10−2 and 3.20 × 10−5 for adults, respectively and were 1.59 × 10−2 and 2.82 × 10−5 for children, respectively. These results indicated an extensive antibiotic residue in honey circulating in the Chinese market, which varied with production place, sale price, and commercial category of nectariferous plants, and a low health risk on human.

Spatial variation in ant–tree bipartite networks is driven by a bottom‐up process

Spatial shifts in the organisation and pattern of ecological networks may be driven by species composition turnover, changes in species abundance and/or abiotic effects on species interactions. To test the above assumptions, we collected arboreal ants and recorded host tree species from five latitudinal sites in Xishuangbanna, China. We constructed bipartite networks and compared spatial variation in species composition, interactions and stability change. We also analysed the relationship between network structure metrics and network stability. Results showed that ant composition differed significantly among the five sites, primarily determined by weaver ants (Oecophylla smaragdina) and Crematogaster ant species. Dominant tree species included Ficus (32 individuals), Hevea (14 individuals), Castanopsis (11 individuals) and Pittosporopsis (8 individuals). Ant richness was positively correlated with tree richness, suggesting that host trees support ant diversity as a fundamental environment. The ant–tree bipartite networks showed low connectance, high specificity and low niche overlap. Links per species and network node were positively correlated with network stability, whereas connectance, nestedness, specificity and niche overlap were not. Ants and trees formed a nonspecific and sparse bipartite network, and the number of nodes and links per species promoted network stability. Because plant richness was positively related to ant richness, and because arboreal ants feed predominantly on extrafloral nectaries, seeds, insects and honeydew secreted from hemipteran insects, we believe the bottom-up process plays a central role in determining ant–tree interaction networks.

An Assessment of Prairie Management Practices for Maintaining Habitat Quality for the Endangered Poweshiek Skipperling Butterfly in Canada

The Poweshiek skipperling (Oarisma poweshiek) was once a common prairie butterfly in central North America, but is now critically endangered in Canada and the United States. The Poweshiek skipperling is confined to the largest remaining tall grass prairie in Canada, which is currently managed using grazing and fire to maintain prairie habitat and prevent forest and shrub encroachment. To support re-introduction, restocking, and recovery of this critically endangered species, it is necessary to understand the habitat conditions preferred by skipperlings. By surveying prairie sites with Poweshiek skipperling across age and treatment categories (1–2 y since burn, 4–6 y since burn, >15 y since burn, and grazing), we identified commonly-used nectar plants and recorded physical variables known to influence plant diversity. We measured soil variables, including macronutrients, compaction, pH, texture, and moisture content, and used multivariate statistics to test for significant differences in site characteristics and plant community across treatments. For each site, we captured plant diversity, abundance, and cover, as well as total plant biomass. We found the oldest burn sites had the fewest skipperlings. Intermediate burn sites and lightly grazed sites contained the most skipperlings. In 95% of nectaring observations, adult skipperlings were feeding on Black-eyed Susan (Rudbeckia hirta), upland white aster (Solidago ptarmicoides), and Self-heal (Prunella vulgaris). Characteristics in the physical components of sites and plant communities did not significantly differ across treatment types for most variables with the exception of the oldest burns, which showed significantly higher levels of soil compaction, live biomass, bare ground, less flowering species during the flight period, less flowering stems, and increased presence of nonnative and invasive species. Poweshiek skipperling is at high risk of imminent extirpation, and we recommend that the management regimes be adjusted to plan for a consistent supply of habitat conditions and plant species composition exemplified by our intermediate burn sites. We suggest fire return intervals of 4–6 y using patch burns in combination with grazing, permitted at times that minimize the impact on immature stages of Poweshiek skipperling. This management is needed to provide suitable habitat conditions to maintain the current population and allow for successful restocking and recovery.

Butterfly and food plant composition of a residential garden in Bago City, Negros Occidental, Philippines with four new butterfly locality records

Residential gardens are some of the most common human-managed habitats in highly urbanized areas but their roles on the ecology of various taxa such as butterflies are still understudied. A 7-year observation was conducted to determine the species composition of butterflies and food plants in an urban residential garden in Bago City, Negros Island. Using visual encounters and photo-documentation, the butterfly inventory was done from October 2013 to December 2020 while the food plant inventory covered only two years (2018–2020). The results revealed a total of 88 butterfly species belonging to five families and 60 genera, of which 20 species were classified as residents, 26 seasonal, and 42 vagrants. Despite the very low endemism (8%), it is noteworthy that four species are new island records: Parnara bada, Potanthus pava, Suastus gremius, and Tagiades trebellius martinus. For the food plants, 80 species from 33 families and 73 genera were identified, of which 37 species are recognized as larval host plants, 49 as nectar plants, and six as both larval host and nectar plant sources. Interestingly, a residential garden with such a small size could harbor 27% of Negros island’s and almost 10% of the country’s butterfly species. Species richness for both butterflies and food plants are high, which supports the idea that gardens could be an alternative habitat for wildlife in highly urbanized areas. Future studies should consider measuring the diversity for both taxa as well as environmental factors affecting butterfly and plant communities in a residential garden.

Body size and diet breadth drive local extinction risk in butterflies

Lepidoptera, butterflies and moths, are significant pollinators and ecosystem health indicators. Therefore, monitoring their diversity, distribution, and extinction risks are of critical importance. We aim to understand drivers of local extinction risks of the butterflies in Bangladesh. We conducted a systematic review to extract local extinction risks of the butterflies of Bangladesh, and possible drivers (e.g., body size and diet breadth) of their extinction. We tested whether body size, larval host plants and adult nectar plants contribute to the local extinction risks of butterflies. We predicted butterflies with larger body size and fewer host and nectar plants would be in greater extinction risk. We showed extinction risk is higher in larger butterflies than smaller butterflies, and in butterflies with fewer number of host and nectar plants than the butterflies with higher number host and nectar plants. Our study identifies body size and diet breadth as a potential driver of the local extinction of butterflies thereby suggesting larger conservation urgency for the larger butterflies with narrow diet breadth.

Anatomical and histochemical characterization of glands associated with the leaf teeth in Rhaphiolepis loquata B.B.Liu & J.Wen (Rosaceae Juss.)

Several representatives of Rosaceae are characterized by presenting leaf teeth. These projections on the leaf margins may be associated with different secretory structures such as extrafloral nectaries, hydathodes or colleters. Colleters are the secretory structures far less kwon in Rosaceae. Although colleters were previously mentioned in species from subfamily Amygdaloideae, authors fail to provide a detailed morphoanatomical description and the chemical nature of the secretion for those colleters. Therefore, we aimed to morphoanatomically describe the leaf teeth of Rhaphiolepis loquata, confirming the nature of the gland associated with the teeth and shedding light on the chemical composition of the gland exudates. For that, samples from the leaf margins at different stages of development were collected and fixed according to standard techniques for both light and scanning electron microscopy. The leaf teeth in R. loquata presented a colleter at its apex. Colleters were rounded with covered by single- or doubled-layered secretory palisade covered with thick cuticle and the central axis was made up of parenchyma cells. The presence of polysaccharides, pectins and proteins was confirmed in the exudates and phenolic compounds accumulated as the gland aged and ceased the exudate production. An abscission zone at the base of the colleter was observed what could cause the falling off of older, non-secreting colleters. This is the first study on the chemical composition of colleter exudates as interpreted through histochemical tests, being a novelty not only for R. loquata but for the Rosaceae family.

Quality Evaluation of Apis laboriosa and Apis mellifera Honey Collected from Bagmati Province, Nepal

Honey is a natural sweet substance produced by Apis sp. from floral nectar or other plant parts which are gathered, modified and stored in the honeycombs by honeybees. The current research was aimed to analyze the quality parameters of locally available honey. Honey samples of Apis laboriosa and Apis mellifera were collected during spring of 2019 & 2021 and autumn 2021 from the Bagmati province, Nepal. Samples were analyzed their physicochemical and phytochemical properties. The result shows that, the pH was ranged between [4.467 0.0306 - 5.05 0.02], rheological studies showed Newtonian flow and pseudo-plastic type of Non-Newtonian flow, specific optical rotation was ranged between [(+) 5.75 0.4684 - (-) 12.71 0.234], specific gravity was ranged between [1.35 0.00017 - 1.409 0.00022], moisture content was ranged between [19.2% - 25%]. Secondary Metabolite screening showed the honey samples possesses flavonoids, saponins, glycosides, tannins, amino acids, protein and reducing sugar. Total phenolic content was ranged between [1.0427 - 6.86288] gm GAE/Kg honey while total flavonoid content ranged between [0.016755 - 0.353132] gm QE/Kg Honey. IC50 obtained from DPPH assay ranged between [649.6465 - 9867.1617] ppm. Properties and qualities of honey are affected by seasonal factors and various floral sources. The samples were in positive correlation between flavanoid content, phenolic content and their respective anti-oxidant potency.

Biochemical Reactions and Their Biological Contributions in Honey

Honey is known for its content of biomolecules, such as enzymes. The enzymes of honey originate from bees, plant nectars, secretions or excretions of plant-sucking insects, or from microorganisms such as yeasts. Honey can be characterized by enzyme-catalyzed and non-enzymatic reactions. Notable examples of enzyme-catalyzed reactions are the production of hydrogen peroxide through glucose oxidase activity and the conversion of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen by catalase enzymes. Production of hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) from glucose or fructose is an example of non-enzymatic reactions in honey.

Transcriptomic comparison sheds new light on regulatory networks for dimorphic flower development in response to photoperiod in Viola prionantha

BackgroundChasmogamous (CH)–cleistogamous (CL) dimorphic flowers are developed in Viola prionantha. However, the environmental and genetic factors necessary for the CH–CL transition are unknown.ResultsIn the present work, short-day (SD) conditions induced CH flowers, whereas long days (LDs) triggered CL flowers in V. prionantha. Compared to fully developed CH flowers, CL flowers had less mature stamens, no nectar glands, and immature petals. Comparative transcriptomics revealed differentially expressed genes (DEGs) during CL and CH development. Core genes in the photoperiod pathway, such as V. prionantha orthologs of GIGANTEA (GI), CONSTANS (CO), and SUPPRESSOR OF OVEREXPRESSION OF CONSTANS 1 (SOC1), which promote floral induction, were highly expressed in CL flowers, whereas UNUSUAL FLORAL ORGANS (UFO) and B-class MADS-box genes for floral organ identity and development showed an opposite alteration. Moreover, genes in the glycolytic process, sucrose metabolic process, and fatty acid biosynthetic process were all highly expressed in CH flowers. Interestingly, V. prionantha orthologs of the B-class MADS-box genes APETALA3 (AP3) and PISTILLATA (PI) might relate to these sugar–fatty acid processes and were co-expressed with GAIP-B-like and YABBY5 (YAB5), which regulate the development of the petal, stamen, and nectary. Compared to CH flowers, DEGs and hub genes in the most significantly correlated modules of the gene co-expression network, which are involved in abiotic and biotic responses, were upregulated in CL flowers.ConclusionsWe proposed an integrative model for transcription regulation of genes in the photoperiod pathway, floral organ development, stress response, and sugar–fatty acid processes to determine CH–CL flower development in V. prionantha. Particularly, under LDs, activated GI may induce genes involved in the stress-response pathways, and then downregulated AP3 and PI or UFO to inhibit the sugar–fatty acid metabolic processes, together forming CL flowers. In contrast, CH flowers were produced under SDs. This work provides novel insights into the developmental evolution of dimorphic flowers in Viola.

CARBOHYDRATE, LIPID AND PROTEIN PROFILE IN CATOPSILIA PYRANTHE TREATED WITH VARIOUS CONCENTRATIONS OF SUGARS AND NECTARS

In order of Lepidoptera, butterflies are the most aesthetic insects which adds beauty to our ecosystem as well as they are the pollinators. Anthropogenic activities are hindering their survival and thus it is the time to conserve them to maintain biodiversity. Nectars are the rewards for such pollinators and their good variety can be able to maintain their coexistence. Sugar concentration in nectars varies and directly affects its mortality, fecundity and physiological, behavioral changes. The present study focuses on the physiological changes of butterflies after treating them with four different concentrations of sucrose (10 %, 20 %, 30 % and 40 %) and four different nectars on which (Catopsilia pyranthe) mottled emigrants generally feed on the field. Also the wild butterflies were collected and were compared with the control, sucrose concentrations and four varieties of nectar diets. Sucrose is selected for the treatment as it is available in nectar at higher amounts. The best results of total carbohydrates in males (0.581 ± 0.059 mg/ml) as well as females (0.509 ± 0.137 mg/ml) were recorded in Vinca rosea treated individuals, glycogen in 40 % sucrose treatments in both male (0.580 ± 0.075 mg/ml) and female (0.614 ± 0.0304 mg/ml), total lipids again in 40 % sucrose treatments in both male (0.850 ± 0.431 mg/ml) and female (0.726 ± 0.1106 mg/ml) and total proteins in wild (1.985 ± 1.782 mg/ml) in male and in 40 % sucrose (1.681 ± 0.111 mg/ml) in female individuals. In SDS PAGE, the highest number of bands of different molecular weights observed in males are Lantana camara, Vinca rosea, Stachytarpheta cayennensis treated and Wild butterflies while in female individuals, it is in Vinca rosea treated and Wild butterflies. The study also presents the 3D structures with the help of peptide search by Uniprot and homology modeling with the help of Swissprot. It is an attempt to represent the variety of physiological changes that occur due to the different concentration of sugars so it can help for further maintenance of nectar plants and ultimately to maintain our ecosystem by conserving pollinators.