Spatial distribution and climate dependency of the hooded vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus) in east Africa: Implications for conservation beyond protected areas

West Africa remains the stronghold for Critically Endangered hooded vultures (Necrosyrtes monachus) and other species of vulture, but these populations are declining. Since anthropogenic threats pose the greatest risks to vultures, it is crucial to understand people's perceptions of these birds, and their ethno-cultural significance, in areas surrounding national parks to inform conservation policy through an understanding of cultural values and practices. We used semi-structured interviews to collect data from 450 respondents in nine localities near three protected areas in northeastern Benin: Sota Forest, Trois Rivières Forest, and Alibori Supérieur Forest. The findings showed that 80% (n = 360) of participants had encountered vultures in the past three years, with the hooded vulture being the most frequently observed vulture species (98% of sightings). We found significant gender-based differences in people's awareness and perceptions of vultures, with men demonstrating greater awareness and more positive perceptions of vultures' roles in carcass disposal and locating missing livestock. Overall, 60% (n = 270) of respondents associated vultures with superstition and witchcraft. Most respondents (70%, n = 315) reported using vulture brains and bones for spiritual and medicinal purposes. Intentional poisoning was the most frequently reported cause of vulture population declines (70%, n = 315). Conservation measures suggested by survey respondents included the protection and restoration of critical nesting habitats (86%, n = 386, raising awareness about threats to vultures (84%, n = 378), equipping ecoguards to safeguard and monitor vulture nests (65%, n = 344), breeding vultures in captivity (60%, n = 270), and enforcing strict penalties for illegal vulture hunting (55%, n = 247). Younger adults (aged 18-30) showed significantly greater support for conservation efforts than older adults (aged > 30). There is an urgent need for a multidimensional approach to vulture conservation in Benin. This approach should integrate awareness campaigns, population monitoring, better enforcement of environmental legislation, and improved habitat conservation to reverse the declines of these critical species.

Abstract The physical and chemical parameters of habitats are known to influence the populations of both migratory and resident bird species. Nevertheless, research on the impacts of water quality parameters on avian diversity and abundance within the Lake Tana biosphere reserve remains limited. The present study investigated spatial and temporal relationships of water physicochemical parameters at different sites based on anthropogenic disturbance, namely, urban, cultivar, grazing, and island sites with bird diversity, abundance, and distribution, using the point count method. A total of 209 bird species from 60 families and 21 orders, including 47 migrants, nine threatened species, and five endemic species, were recorded. Our findings show that avifaunal diversity and abundance are lower in disturbed urban and cultivated habitats that exhibit elevated levels of suspended solids (SS) and turbidity, along with the lowest recorded levels of dissolved oxygen (DO) and pH, indicating that the Lake Tana biosphere reserve is in poor health. Species richness and abundance exhibited a positive correlation with both pH levels and DO. The findings showed that anthropogenic factors adversely affected the physicochemical parameters at the selected sampling sites to a varying degree. Across sampling sites, the mean spatial and seasonal pH measurements remained within the acceptable range, tending towards alkalinity, which is conducive to the majority of aquatic biota. The study highlights the necessity for effective management strategies focused on enhancing water quality and reducing the effects of anthropogenic disturbances to secure the long-term sustainability of the Lake Tana ecosystem and its avian biodiversity. Moreover, the presence of threatened, endemic, and migratory species, such as Necrosyrtes monachus, Gyps africanus, Aquila rapax, Clanga clanga, Balearica pavonina, Oxyura maccoa, Bostrychia carunculata, and Agapornis taranta emphasizes the importance of avifaunal conservation in Lake Tana and its surrounding habitats.

ABSTRACTSlaughterhouses in The Gambia serve as critical feeding sites for diverse vertebrate scavenger communities, including hooded vultures, domestic dogs, pigs and avian species such as pied crows, black kites and cattle egrets. This study investigated how the quantity and type of organic waste influence the composition and competitive interactions of scavengers across five slaughterhouses. Using multivariate statistical models, we found that waste quantity was the strongest predictor of scavenger community composition, explaining 32.7% of the variation, with hooded vultures being most abundant at high‐waste sites. Specific waste types influenced feeding behaviour, suggesting niche differentiation among species; for instance, cattle egrets focused on blood and insects, while vultures dominated meat‐based resources. Competitive interactions varied by species, with domestic dogs frequently displacing vultures without physical conflict, whereas hooded vultures dominated interactions against other birds. Activity patterns revealed temporal separation, with vultures and dogs active primarily in the morning, and other avian scavengers more active in the afternoon, reducing interspecific competition. The study highlights the essential role of hooded vultures in waste management and disease mitigation but also emphasises how poor fencing facilitates mammalian access, intensifying competition and potentially threatening obligate scavengers. Improving fencing, controlling feeding, and incorporating targeted waste management strategies are recommended to support scavenger conservation and enhance ecosystem services in urbanised environments.

Spatial Distribution of the Critically Endangered Hooded Vultures (Necrosyrtes monachus) in the Cape Coast Metropolis, Southern Ghana

Protected areas are crucial for the conservation of West Africa’s increasingly imperiled wildlife, but are under unprecedented pressure associated with exponential human population growth in the region. Using birds as biodiversity indicators, we investigated the conservation status of Togo’s Fazao-Malfakassa National Park, which was managed by a private foundation from 1990 to 2015, and since 2015 has been managed by the state. Between 2022 and 2024, we conducted 90 days of bird surveys in the park and documented a total of 240 bird species. Our findings include 34 species new to the park, including the first record of Emin’s Shrike (Lanius gubernator) in Togo, the first sightings of the Great Blue Turaco (Corythaeola cristata) since 1990, and first observations of the Abyssinian Ground-Hornbill (Bucorvus abyssinicus) since 2019. Many such species survive in Togo only in Fazao-Malfakassa National Park, but its exceptional biodiversity has come under increasing assault from illegal activities, including poaching, logging, road construction, charcoal production, cattle grazing, and land clearance to establish agricultural plantations. We were unable to document 91 bird species previously reported for the park during our surveys, suggesting a possible ~31% decline in avian species richness in the park compared to historical records. Apparent extirpations of globally-threatened raptors such as the Critically Endangered White-backed Vulture (Gyps africanus) and Hooded Vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus), and declines of the Endangered Bateleur (Terathopius ecaudatus) and Martial Eagle (Polemaetus bellicosus) further indicate that current conservation strategies are failing to adequately protect wildlife in the park. Togo’s two other historical national parks have already been almost entirely destroyed by human activities, and unless urgent conservation action is taken, there is a high risk that Fazao-Malfakassa National Park will share the same fate. We urgently recommend improving support for law enforcement capacity and park staff, conducting community conservation outreach, and ongoing monitoring of wildlife in the park to assess its conservation success.

Summary Persecution for belief-based uses is a major threat to raptors in West Africa. Critically Endangered Hooded Vultures Necrosyrtes monachus are traded openly in West African vodun (also known as voodoo or fetish) markets in Benin, despite national laws protecting this species. We interviewed 115 vendors selling Hooded Vultures and/or their body parts at nine different markets in southern Benin to understand the extent and drivers of this illegal trade. Over four months, we counted a total of 522 Hooded Vultures in market stalls, including whole dried vulture carcasses (73.4% of vulture products offered for sale), vulture heads (17.2%), and live birds (9.4%). Vultures offered for sale originated from at least 10 foreign countries, suggesting there are far-reaching impacts of illegal trade on Hooded Vultures. Vodun practitioners sacrifice and consume vultures in the belief these practices will protect them from witchcraft and achieve other supernatural aims, and the resulting high demand for vultures has driven the price of a Hooded Vulture to exceed the average monthly income in Benin. Despite serious legal, conservation, and animal welfare concerns, wildlife trade for belief-based use is thriving and growing in West Africa, and our findings highlight that legislation aimed at protecting vultures in Benin appears to be currently ineffective. From our discussions with traders, it appears that low education levels, weak law enforcement, and disregard for legislation contribute to this trade that threatens remaining vultures across West Africa. Public awareness campaigns to educate residents about conservation laws and improved law enforcement are urgently needed to mitigate on-going threats to this and other Critically Endangered species.

Abundance, breeding records, and nest site characteristics of the critically endangered Hooded Vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus) in and around Chelekleka wetland, Ethiopia

ABSTRACTIn recent decades, African vulture populations have experienced a distressing decline, with certain species plummeting by over 90%. This decline can largely be attributed to various human‐induced pressures. In West Africa, the trade of vultures for magico‐traditional medicine stands out as a significant threat. However, there remains a dearth of knowledge regarding the extent and economic ramifications of poaching and its associated trade on the biodiversity of these raptors in Côte d'Ivoire. This study sets out to gauge the scope of vulture trade and trafficking in Côte d'Ivoire, as well as its national and subregional repercussions, while also scrutinizing the potential constraints such activity imposes on the biodiversity of these raptors. Ethno‐ornithological investigations were conducted across 24 cities in Côte d'Ivoire, delving into the markets where various animals are showcased. The aim was to analyze the challenges stemming from the demand for vultures for magico‐traditional medicinal purposes and to examine the economic values entwined with poaching and trading these vultures. The findings illuminate the existence of a network dedicated to poaching and trading vultures in Côte d'Ivoire, driven by robust demand and regularly supplied by local and regional sources from neighboring countries. Predominantly, the Hooded Vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus) emerges as the most frequently encountered species on the market. In response to this imminent threat, it is advocated that national and regional awareness campaigns be undertaken to bolster enforcement of pertinent wildlife protection laws, particularly concerning vultures. Furthermore, fostering enhanced cooperation among West African governments is advised to avert the extinction of these species.

ABSTRACT Vultures are currently among the most endangered species in the world. Their populations have significantly declined during the last decades. In West Africa, threats mainly include persecution for belief-based use (e.g., traditional medicine and succeeding in business), accidents, and degradation of natural habitats. In Senegal, knowledge of vulture populations is lacking; hence, we were interested in studying them as part of the Great Green Wall (GGW) project (officially known as the Grande Muraille Verte project). Initiated in 2009 by African heads of state, the GGW project involves reforestation designed to restore ecosystems in the Sahel that have been degraded by climate change and harmful human activity. It also helps to combat poverty among local populations by developing the natural potential of their environment. Over a 3-yr period, we searched for occupied nests, communal roost sites and frequent perches, and other signs of vulture presence within a 16-km radius of Koyli Alpha, a village situated within the GGW extension project area in northern Senegal. We documented 19 occupied vulture nests within this study area, 10 belonging to Rüppell’s Vultures (Gyps rueppelli), 7 belonging to White-backed Vultures (Gyps africanus), 1 belonging to Hooded Vultures (Necrosyrtes monachus), and 1 belonging to Lappet-faced Vultures (Torgos tracheliotos). Vultures nested primarily in Acacia raddiana and baobob (Adansonia digitata). Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus), Egyptian Vultures (Neophron percnopterus), and White-headed Vultures (Trigonoceps occipitalis) also were observed roosting and foraging in the area. The main threats to vultures in the study area are habitat fragmentation, destruction of natural habitats by anthropogenic activities, and poaching to obtain vulture parts for traditional practices for belief-based use. Our results concerning vulture species diversity and ecology reinforce the idea that the Koyli Alpha area should be designated as an Important Bird Area or a key biodiversity area. Strict application of the laws governing these protected areas would ensure better protection for these highly endangered species.

Numbers of Critically Endangered Hooded Vultures (Necrosyrtes monachus Temminck 1823) are declining across their distribution. The range-edge population in South Africa is one of the smallest populations with only 100-200 mature individuals. In South Africa, Hooded Vultures nest solitarily in loose colonies (mean distance between nests 0.76 km) along water courses. Basic ecological information, such as breeding behaviour, is still lacking for the species. In this study, we examine the relatedness and nest turnover of nesting individuals along the Olifants River and other locations in the Lowveld of South Africa by sampling nests over five consecutive years. A key hypothesis tested is whether communal roosting sites function as information-sharing hubs, a phenomenon that has been seen in Cape Vultures (Gyps coprotheres) and other cliff-nesting vultures. Theory suggests that information sharing occurs more frequently between closely related individuals. If true, we expect distance between nests and genetic relatedness to be positively correlated and individuals to use the same nests over multiple years. Naturally moulted feathers (n = 108) were collected below nests over five consecutive years, and 14 microsatellite loci markers were used to measure genetic relatedness. Mantel tests performed correlating distance between nests to relatedness coefficient estimators TrioML (r = 0.032, R 2 = 0.001, p = 0.224) and LynchRD (r = 0.007, R 2 = 0.00005, p = 0.403), found no statistical correlation. The Mantel test performed using Nei's genetic distance and distance between nests did show a negative correlation (r = -0.108, R 2 = 0.0117, p-value = 0.012), indicating that individuals that were more closely related tended to breed further away. No nest reuse was found in this study. We thus believe that these loose colonies do not act as food-finding hubs, but rather that the Olifants River is an important breeding site for these birds.

Globally, vultures and other raptors are facing a critical population crisis, with forecasts suggesting that up to 40% of species may become extinct within the next 30 years. This alarming declining trend is particularly pronounced in Africa, where vulture populations have drastically declined, with many species experiencing severe reductions or even local extinctions. In Nigeria, this decline is especially severe, with historical records indicating once-abundant vulture populations now reduced to only a few remaining species. This study aimed to evaluate the current status of vultures and other raptors across five contiguous states in Nigeria: Plateau, Kaduna, Nasarawa, Benue, and Enugu. The survey was conducted from January 28 to February 2, 2019, using an open Hillux traveling at 45 km/hour. Observations were made by two researchers from an opened truck, who recorded the number of raptors encountered and their locations at various times of the day. Data analysis was done using a Generalized Linear Model (GLM) in R to assess species abundance and compare raptor abundance across the states. The results were visualised using bar charts. A total of 217 raptors were sighted, with Yellow-billed Kites (Milvus aegyptius) being the most numerous, followed by Common kestrels (Falco tinnunculus). Vultures were significantly less abundant, with only three Palm-nut Vultures (Gypohierax angolensis) and two Hooded Vultures (Necrosyrtes monachus) recorded. This stark contrast highlights the severe decline in vulture populations in Nigeria, underlining the urgent need for conservation actions. The findings emphasise the urgent need for targeted conservation efforts to protect vultures and other raptors. Recommendations include, increasing public awareness, implementing protective legislation, and improving habitat management. Engaging local communities and enforcing laws against illegal hunting and trade in avian fauna are essential for preserving Nigeria’s raptor populations and preventing further declines.

Critically endangered Hooded Vultures (Necrosyrtes monachus Temminck, 1823), like many vulture species globally, are experiencing rapid population declines due to anthropogenic factors such as poisonings, human persecution, trading for belief-based use, and habitat loss/degradation. The Hooded Vulture is widespread across sub-Saharan Africa. Although it is considered one of the most abundant vultures in West Africa, this vulture species is less common in East and southern Africa, with the population at the southern-most edge of the distribution (in South Africa and Eswatini) estimated at only 100–200 mature individuals. The distribution of Hooded Vultures has contracted dramatically in southern Africa, with breeding populations largely confined to protected areas such as the Greater Kruger National Park. This study aimed to investigate the genetic diversity of the southern African range-edge population and assess if the recent contraction in the distribution has resulted in the population experiencing a genetic bottleneck. Sixteen microsatellite loci were amplified for samples collected along the Olifants River in the Greater Kruger National Park (n = 30). The genetic diversity in the South African population was compared to samples (n = 30) collected in Ghana, where Hooded Vultures are more abundant. Contrary to expectations, the South African peripheral Hooded Vulture population showed higher levels of heterozygosity (HO = 0.495) than the Ghanaian population (HO = 0.315). Neither population showed signs of recent bottleneck events when tested using demographic modelling and Approximate Bayesian computation (ABC). However, both populations showed high levels of inbreeding and relatedness. Our results suggest that despite being a small peripheral population, the South African Hooded Vulture population showed a similar level of genetic diversity as individuals sampled from a core population within the species distribution (in Ghana). This study supports the need for Hooded Vulture conservation efforts in the southern African region and highlights the evolutionary importance of range-edge populations.

In recent years, Hooded Vulture populations in West Africa have decreased substantially. However, in some areas within this region, the species is still relatively abundant. To find out more about the situation in West Africa, we assessed the status of Hooded Vultures in Benin, one of the countries where their status is not well known. We conducted road counts on paved and unpaved roads and along small trails over a total of 1451 km. We also conducted interviews with local abattoir watchmen, veterinarians, butchers and foresters to examine potential threats to this species. A total of 52 Hooded Vultures were counted mostly in the departments of Atacora (32) but also in Alibori (10) and Borgou (10). The relative abundance was four Hooded Vultures per 100 km, highlighting the near extirpation of this bird from Benin. A total of 49 interviews revealed that poaching for belief-based use (through shooting and traps) and decreasing food availability remain the most important threats for Hooded Vultures in northern Benin. If these threats are not mitigated, we predict the extirpation of the Hooded Vulture outside protected areas in Benin within the next two decades, possibly even sooner. Conservation measures, including awareness campaigns, and the improvement and enforcement of environmental legislation, must be urgently implemented to improve the protection of this Critically Endangered vulture species.

Large-scale declines in vulture populations have been recorded in West Africa. One concern is that the current trend in Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus populations in West Africa is poorly known. To help fill this knowledge gap, we conducted nationwide road counts in Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger, using (where possible) the same routes and methods as counts conducted in 1969–1973 and 2003–2004 (46–50 years later). Use of exactly the same routes was unfortunately possible only in Burkina Faso as a result of the security situation in sub-Saharan West Africa at the time of this study. Our results reveal that Burkina Faso remains a stronghold for Hooded Vultures with a mean abundance of 62 individuals per 100 km, reaching a peak of 217 per 100 km in the highest abundance areas. A comparison between early and recent studies shows that populations of Hooded Vulture are still declining in the West African sub-region. In Burkina Faso, the number of Hooded Vultures per 100 km decreased from 122 to 75 (a decline of 38%) over the last five decades. In the West African sub-region, under both ‘best-case’ and ‘worst-case’ scenarios, Hooded Vultures seem to have declined by 58% to 65% between the 1970s and 2019. The main causes of this population decline in West Africa are unintentional poisoning, decreasing food availability, and the trade in vulture body parts for Traditional Medicine. Conservation actions for Hooded Vultures in West Africa could include the implementation of supplementary feeding sites (also known as ‘vulture restaurants’) and decreasing the demand for vulture body parts (for use in Traditional Medicine and mystical practices) by offering relevant alternatives such as plants and their derivatives.

BackgroundPopulations of vultures in Africa have experienced a rapid decline over recent decades, with some species suffering losses of more than 90%. Various forms of human pressures have been identified as the causes of this decline. However, very little is known about the complex interaction between cultural practises, traditional medicine and the vultures’ natural environment. The purpose of this study was to analyse human pressures on vultures in relation with cultural attitudes such as their demand for magico-traditional medicine in Côte d’Ivoire, around the Comoé National Park (CNP), one of the last major refuges of these organisms in West Africa.MethodsEleven surrounding villages were visited to carry out ethno-ornithology surveys. One hundred and ten people were interviewed, at a rate of ten people per village, using a semi-structured questionnaire and informal discussions.ResultsThe findings showed that vultures are still being seen both in and around the CNP. The most common species indicated to be observed and indicated by the interviewees were the Hooded Vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus) and the White-headed Vulture (Trigonoceps occipitalis). Nevertheless, 98.2% of the interviewees indicated having observed a decrease in the abundance of vultures over the last few years in the study area, as well as a decline in the number of sightings of these organisms. Interviewees attributed this scarcity of vultures to (1) the limited availability of food resources, (2) pesticide and tobacco poisoning, (3) hunting, (4) rapid population growth, (5) annual bushfires and (6) habitat loss. The uses of the vulture or parts of vultures by the populations surrounding the CNP (traditional medicine, mystic practises, consumption as food, cultural heritage) were also highlighted as real threats to these organisms. And the vulture parts commonly used in this area are: feathers, legs, head, heart, stomach, brain and excrement. The Hooded Vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus) appears to be the most sought-after species and the most widely used for these practises in the study area.ConclusionAppropriate conservation and communication initiatives are required to ensure the survival of these raptors, crucial for ecosystem well-being, while also ensuring a respect of cultural practises.

Bird diversity in a Sahelian ecosystem under restoration: A study in the great Grenn wall extension area of Senegal

Environmental factors, such as climate change and anthropogenic activities, constitute the principal drivers behind the global decline of avian scavengers. In this context, understanding and predicting the impact of environmental factors on species distribution at different geographic scales is essential for identifying priority areas with significant suitable habitats for conservation. Using ensemble Species Distribution Modelling (eSDM) with georeferenced occurrence records from Ghana, this study shows that area of suitable habitats for the critically endangered Hooded Vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus) will decline under specific future climate scenarios (2060, 2080, and 2100). In particular, declines will be much higher and more rapid under fossil-fuelled development (SSP585) than in the middle of the road (SSP245) and sustainable (SSP126) climate scenario pathways, which will experience a relative increase in suitable habitats. Land use (specifically, urban areas/sparse vegetation) and precipitation in the wettest month (bio13) are the most important contributors to Hooded Vulture spatial distribution. eSDM predictions suggest that suitable habitats will contract in the South and shift up North under future climate scenarios. Further, a substantial proportion of suitable habitats (approximately 78%) lie outside the country’s protected area network, with the few represented expected to decline by the turn of the century. The approach of this study and the results appear valuable for identifying, monitoring, and intensifying conservation planning efforts in priority areas by scientists and decision-makers toward the protection of the threatened Hooded Vulture in Ghana.

Summary In sub-Saharan Africa, and particularly within Ghana’s savanna ecosystem, scientific studies on the distribution patterns and habitat use of raptors, including vultures, are scarce. Despite global research on vulture abundance and habitat preferences, data from West Africa remain limited. This study examines the abundance of four vulture species, focusing on their seasonal activity, age distribution, and preference for three specific habitats, i.e. woodlands, riparian forests, and grasslands, in the southern part of Mole National Park (MNP), Ghana. We conducted a survey using 39 line transects during both dry and wet seasons to make an inventory of these species. Employing a generalised linear model, we assessed the influence of seasons, age, and habitat types on vulture abundance. Our survey recorded a total of 466 vultures, with Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus and White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus being the most frequently observed. Vulture numbers were notably higher in riparian and woodland areas than in grasslands, and adults were more prevalent than juveniles across all observed species. The study highlights the need for continuous monitoring and the protection of critical riparian habitats to aid in the conservation of these threatened species within the MNP.

ABSTRACT Vultures are among the most threatened species in Africa, with several critically endangered species surviving mainly or only in protected areas. West African vulture declines are correlated with steep losses of natural habitat and mammalian wildlife. Major factors driving vulture extirpations include wildlife trade for traditional medicine, belief-based rituals, and bushmeat. Current data on vulture abundance and breeding ecology are crucial for conservation but lacking in many countries, including Ghana. Between 2020 and 2022, we conducted 761 km of surveys for critically endangered vultures in Mole National Park (Mole NP), a 4840 km2 protected savanna in northern Ghana. Using our count data, we estimated populations of 29–36 Hooded Vultures (Necrosyrtes monachus), 25–73 White-backed Vultures (Gyps africanus), and 3–4 White-headed Vultures (Trigonoceps occipitalis) in the southern region of Mole NP. We also documented 17 occupied vulture nests, including six Hooded Vulture nests, 10 White-backed Vulture nests, and one White-headed Vulture nest. Our findings include the first nest records for Hooded Vultures in Mole NP, the first nest description of White-backed Vultures in Ghana, and the first nest records for White-headed Vultures in Ghana, confirming the importance of Mole NP for conserving critically endangered vultures. Reducing poaching, preventing the killing of vultures for wildlife trade, and protecting vulture habitat and food resources will be paramount to the survival of critically endangered vultures in Ghana and West Africa.