Near-infrared Imaging Spectrometer Research Articles

Analysis of a large buried impact crater and vertical mineral composition at the Chang'E-4 landing site by multi-source remote sensing data

Exploring the concealed subsurface structures and materials beneath the lunar surface can reveal significant insights into geological history. This study offers a comprehensive analysis of the stratigraphic interpretation and subsurface material composition at the Chang'E-4 landing site, integrating both in-situ and orbital radar with multispectral datasets. We report the identification of a subsurface structure, which resembles a buried impact crater (∼420 m in diameter) under the Yutu-2 rover's path. This crater could degrade over a period of 0.42 to 0.53 Ga, with an initial diameter of 293 to 323 m and an initial depth of 45.9 to 51.4 m. Surface material above the buried crater, evaluated by the in-situ visible and near-infrared imaging spectrometer (VNIS) detector, shows a higher abundance of clinopyroxene compared to surrounding areas, where a near-equal mix of clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene is observed. Assessment of crater diameters in proximity to the Chang'E-4 landing site, along with the mineral compositions at their epicenters, reveals a decrease in the abundance of clinopyroxene and plagioclase with depth. Conversely, the quantities of orthopyroxene and olivine increase, implying that orthopyroxene-rich Finsen ejecta significantly influenced the Chang'E-4 landing site's geological composition. Two potential stratigraphic boundary depths are identified at 13.5 and 22 m, based on pronounced variations in mineral abundance, offering fresh insights into subsurface delineation beyond radar data. Considering the VNIS and vertical mineral composition, we propose the buried crater's formation resulted from Finsen crater's ejecta. Also, we identify eight potential historical impacts by comparing subsurface relief variations with mineral composition ratios between clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene. The integration of subsurface structure, along with surface and subsurface mineral composition, enables a more robust stratigraphic interpretation, facilitates shallow material source analysis, and allows for historical impact tracing.

Sample data selection based on the feature subspace for photometric correction of the Chang'E-4 in situ observations

The lunar surface exhibits noticeable variations in photometric properties across different regions, influenced by their specific compositional and physical characteristics. These variations are particularly pronounced at the millimeter to centimeter scale. In this study, we propose a feature subspace-based sample selection method to identify Chang'E-4 Visible Near-infrared Imaging Spectrometer (CE-4 VNIS) in situ observations that share similar photometric properties at the centimeter scale. By constructing a feature subspace through principal component transformation, the CE-4 VNIS observation sites with comparable surface photometric properties are able to be selected from a series of observations. The selection results demonstrate that the majority of observation sites are covered by the lunar regolith, with a few exceptions consisting of rocks, soil bulk, shadows, and rough surfaces. These observations should be excluded from the photometric correction process during phase function fitting. Analyzing the photometric performance of the VNIS data with lunar regolith reveals that reflectance decreases as the phase angle increases below 80°, while above 80°, reflectance increases with increasing phase angle. This phenomenon is likely attributed to stronger forward scattering. Thus, a second-order polynomial is employed to fit the phase function for VNIS data. Consequently, a photometric model is developed for lunar regolith observed by CE-4 VNIS, incorporating the fitted phase function. Experimental results demonstrate reduced differences among observations with varying phase angles, and the corrected VNIS spectra exhibit a phase-reddening effect. These findings validate the effectiveness of the proposed model. A comparison between the corrected data with and without sample selection reveals a 33 % decrease in mean standard deviation for VIS/NIR bands and a 19 % decrease for SWIR bands in the corrected spectra after sample selection. These results indicate the potential applicability of our method for future VNIS observations, enabling the acquisition of photometrically consistent data.

Calibration of MAJIS (Moons And Jupiter Imaging Spectrometer). III. Spectral calibration.

The Moons And Jupiter Imaging Spectrometer (MAJIS) is the visible and near-infrared imaging spectrometer onboard the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer mission. Before its integration into the spacecraft, the instrument undergoes an extensive ground calibration to establish its baseline performances. This process prepares the imaging spectrometer for flight operations by characterizing the behavior of the instrument under various operative conditions and uncovering instrumental distortions that may depend on instrumental commands. Two steps of the on-ground calibration campaigns were held at the instrument level to produce the data. Additional in-flight measurements have recently been obtained after launch during the Near-Earth Commissioning Phase. In this article, we present the analyses of these datasets, focusing on the characterization of the spectral performances. First, we describe and analyze the spectral calibration datasets obtained using both monochromatic sources and polychromatic sources coupled with solid and gas samples. Then, we derive the spectral sampling and the spectral response function over the entire field of view. These spectral characteristics are quantified for various operational parameters of MAJIS, such as temperature and spectral binning. The derived on-ground performances are then compared with in-flight measurements obtained after launch and presented in the framework of the MAJIS performance requirements.

Development of observation strategies from mission design to operations: illustration with Mars moons Explorer infrared spectrometer (MIRS)

MIRS is part of the French contribution to the Martian Moons eXploration (MMX) mission that will be launched in 2024 by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). It is a near-infrared imaging spectrometer developed by the French Laboratory of Space Studies and Astrophysics Instrumentation (LESIA), of the Observatoire de Paris – PSL, with close cooperation and financial support from CNES. One of the major mission goals is to understand the origin of Phobos and Deimos, providing important insights into planetary formation and the transfer of matter in the region connecting the inner and outer solar system.During the four years of the mission, the MIRS control centre will provide precise sequencing of MIRS activities and guidance of its line of sight, with two main drivers: optimize scientific return and comply with the operability constraints of the instrument, the satellite and the system. In this perspective, observation strategies are designed, modelled and tested iteratively throughout all preparation phases of the mission. Discussions on concrete simulation results and illustrations improve mutual understanding, raise unexpressed needs and constraints and promote feedback on the efficiency of the proposed strategies. They also favour a global optimization of the entire system with the refinement of the trajectories and of the scheduling considering the seasons of the Martian system.This paper describes the whole process of observation strategies development in cooperation with the MMX and MIRS system and scientific teams, as well as the current status and results.

Optical Design of a Novel Wide-Field-of-View Space-Based Spectrometer for Climate Monitoring.

We report on a near-infrared imaging spectrometer for sensing the three most prominent greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (water vapor, carbon dioxide and methane). The optical design of the spectrometer involves freeform optics, which enables achieving exceptional performance and allows progressing well beyond the state-of-the-art in terms of compactness, field-of-view, and spatial resolution. The spectrometer is intended to be launched on a small satellite orbiting at 700 km and observing the Earth with a wide field-of-view of 120° and a spatial resolution of 2.6 km at nadir. The satellite will ultimately allow for improved climate change monitoring.

Lunar Terrestrial Analog Experiment on the Spectral Interpretations of Rocks Observed by the Yutu-2 Rover

A visible and near-infrared imaging spectrometer (VNIS) loaded by the Chang’e-4 rover is the primary method for detecting the mineral composition of the lunar surface in the landing region. However, different data processing methods yield inconsistent mineral modes in measured lunar soil and rocks. To better constrain the mineral modes of the soil and rocks measured by Chang’e-4 VNIS, a noritic-gabbroic rock with a mineral composition similar to that of the lunar highland rocks is measured by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), the spare flight model of Chang’e-4 VNIS and TerraSpec-4 of ASD. Backscattered electron and energy dispersive spectrometry show that olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase modal mineral abundances are 12.9, 35.0, and 52.2%, respectively. The estimated results of the spectrum by the Hapke radiative transfer model are 7.5, 39.3, and 53.2% for olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase, respectively, which is consistent with to those of SEM mapping within error. In contrast, the estimated results of the modified Gaussian model are 29 and 71% for olivine and pyroxene, respectively, indicating the absence of plagioclase. Based on our implemented Hapke model, we decode the data of the two rocks detected by the rover on the 3rd and 26th lunar days of mission operations. The obtained results suggest that both rocks are norite or gabbro with noticeable differences. The first rock, with more olivine and pyroxene, may have been excavated from the Finsen crater. The second rock, with more plagioclase, may have been ejected from the southwestern edge of the Von Kármán crater, indicating the initial lunar crust.

Band-Averaged Response Sensitivity Study of an Imaging Spectrometer for the CLARREO Pathfinder Mission

Prelaunch absolute, SI-traceable radiometric calibration of satellite-based sensors is key to ensuring the utility of imaging spectrometer-based data products. The development of detector-based calibration techniques leads to the feasibility of meeting the 0.3% uncertainty level needed to provide climate quality data sets. Detector-based calibration is a method in which a well-understood and stable transfer radiometer is calibrated in a standards laboratory to SI-traceable standards, and transported to a facility calibrating a sensor of interest. The transfer radiometer provides the calibration of the source used in the radiometric calibration. A detector-based calibration approach is part of the prelaunch calibration of the CLARREO (Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory) Pathfinder (CPF) sensor with the Goddard Laser for Absolute Measurement of Radiance (GLAMR) system. The SI-traceability of GLAMR is through the electric watt as part of the absolute radiometric calibration of the detectors at the National Institute of Standards and Technology using the Primary Optical Watt Radiometer. The current work uses GLAMR data collected with a visible and near-infrared imaging spectrometer calibration demonstration system to develop a source/sensor modeled calibration data set as part of a sensitivity study to evaluate uncertainties from the spectral sampling and processing methods that accompany the GLAMR calibration process. The spectral “supersets” include realistic instrumental features as well as effects from the GLAMR source. The methods needed to ensure that spurious sensor and GLAMR data are excluded are described. Results are given from the sensitivity study related to GLAMR spectral sampling and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) effects, sensor integration time, and frame averaging of the imaging spectrometer data. The study shows that the 6 nm bandwidth sensor simulation requires a 1 nm spectral sampling of the GLAMR source with a radiance level that provides an in-band peak SNR > 200 to ensure that climate quality accuracies can be achieved. The results are also used to refine the test plan for the independent calibration for the CLARREO Pathfinder sensor calibration to optimize test time while meeting the required accuracy levels.

A hyperspectral R based leaf area index estimator: model development and implementation using AVIRIS-NG

Hyperspectral Remote Sensing (HRS) data is vital for crop growth monitoring due to availability of contiguous bands. This research work provides a new novel crop estimator model given the name “Crop Stage estimator” developed using the HRS data on an open-source R platform. The generic model structure provides an easy way to test and modify the importance of crop parameter namely Leaf Area Index to deduce crop growth stages of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) particularly during –heading, tillering and booting. Further, to know the LAI variations at different agriculture sites, the best model was implemented using the AVIRIS-NG (Airborne Visible Near-Infrared Imaging Spectrometer - Next Generation) hyperspectral datasets. The analysis indicates that during tillering stage the performance was found best during calibration (r = 0.66, RMSE =0.40, and Bias =-0.80) and validation (r = 0.98, RMSE =0.20, and Bias =0.12) in comparison to the ground measurements.

Mafic mineralogy assemblages at the Chang’e-4 landing site: A combined laboratory and lunar in situ spectroscopic study

Context.Chang’e-4 (CE-4) provides unprecedented information about lunar materials exposed by the South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin. Diverse results have been obtained from previous interpretations of CE-4 visible and near-infrared (VNIR) spectra. Some studies suggest that materials at the CE-4 landing site are dominated by olivine and orthopyroxene, but others argue that only a small amount of olivine should be exposed at the CE-4 landing site.Aims.Laboratory spectroscopy studies using the Engineering Model of CE-4 Visible and Near-infrared Imaging Spectrometer (VNIS) are critical in constraining the accurate mineral proportions and composition of soils and boulders at the CE-4 landing site.Methods.VNIR spectra of nine lunar analogs – prepared by mixing orthopyroxene (OPX), clinopyroxene (CPX), olivine (OL), and plagioclase – were acquired using the CE-4 VNIS Engineering Model. The spectral indices model and modified Gaussian model were developed to estimate CPX/(CPX+OPX) and OL/(OL+CPX+OPX) and are applicable to the in situ spectra acquired by the Yutu-2 VNIS spectrometer.Results.The lunar rocks and regolith at the CE-4 landing site excavated by the Finsen impact are CPX-rich with limited OL (CPX:OPX:OL = 56:29:17). The mineral chemistries of the four lunar rocks show Mid-Ca, Fe pyroxene, and Mid-Mg OL (Fo60−79), providing critical constraints for mineral compositions in the SPA compositional anomaly. These rocks exhibit high M1 intensity ratios, indicating that they were crystallized at a high temperature (980–1300 °C) and a rapid-cooling magmatic system produced by impact melt differentiation or volcanic resurfacing events.

In-Flight Calibration of Visible and Near-Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (VNIS) Onboard Chang’E-4 Unmanned Lunar Rover

The Visible and Near-infrared Imaging Spectrometer (VNIS) is one of the scientific payloads onboard the Yutu-2 lunar rover of the Chang’E-4 mission. Based on Acousto-Optic Tunable Filter (AOTF) dispersion, a moving platform and a calibration unit, the VNIS was designed for lunar surface observations of the far side of the Moon for composition exploration and spectral experiments in the wavelength range of 0.45–2.4μm. Large differences in radiance caused by the discrepancy between the laboratory and lunar environment could affect the spectral shape and features. Therefore, in-flight calibration of the VNIS is critical for the interpretation of the acquired spectra. To precisely map the digital output to the spectral radiance, a calibration unit was installed on the VNIS to facilitate radiometric calibration measurements on the lunar surface. After the elimination of stray light and the shadow effect, the measured radiance of the calibration unit was derived by digital multiplication of the pre-flight coefficients. Considering the observation geometry, Moon-Sun distance, and the bi-directional reflectance factor (BRF) of the calibration panel, the theoretical radiance at the entrance pupil of VNIS was calculated. Using linear regression, in-flight calibration of the coefficients was performed and used to correct the spectral data. The performance of the spectrometer was evaluated using 12 lunar-day data. It was determined that the coefficients gradually converged and the variation was less than 1%, indicating that the in-flight calibration was robust. The proposed in-flight calibration method facilitated the acquisition of reliable data for lunar composition interpretation.

한국형 우주망원경 개발을 위한 공동기획 Working Group 제안

In order to satisfy the intellectual curiosity of mankind to explore the unknown, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in the United States and European Space Agency (ESA) in Europe are embarking on various R&D under the motto of the grand dream of pioneering space into a safe and sustainable environment. In the 2020s and 30s, it is expected that advanced giant observation equipment will be in operation, such as the development of a 10-meter-class telescope in space. In Korea, following the development of the 0.15 m Near-Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (NISS), Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI) is also participating a 0.2 m Spectro-Photometer for the History of the Universe, Epoch of Reionization, and Ices Explorer (SPHEREx) as an international cooperation partner in small exploration telescope. However, domestic experience in the development and operation of the space telescopes is still insufficient, and there is no plan with long-term prospects for constructing telescopes. In order to answer questions about the unknown world that mankind has not experienced using our own equipment, planning and preparation for the construction of a space telescope through close cooperation among industry-university-institute-government is urgently needed. In this paper, the necessity, background, development goals, and expected effects of the development of the Korean Space Telescope are summarized conceptually, and a working group (WG) is also proposed. In the WG activities, Korea shall take the lead in establishing the Korean-style space telescope development plan, and will start a valuable step to establish the national direction in the field of space astronomy and related technologies. We hope that the WG will be another milestone in Korea

Mineralogical and chemical properties inversed from 21-lunar-day VNIS observations taken during the Chang\u2019E-4 mission

We report on the mineralogical and chemical properties of materials investigated by the lunar rover Yutu-2, which landed on the Von Kármán crater in the pre-Nectarian South Pole–Aitken (SPA) basin. Yutu-2 carried several scientific payloads, including the Visible and Near-infrared Imaging Spectrometer (VNIS), which is used for mineral identification, offering insights into lunar evolution. We used 86 valid VNIS data for 21 lunar days, with mineral abundance obtained using the Hapke radiative transfer model and sparse unmixing algorithm and chemical compositions empirically estimated. The mineralogical properties of the materials at the Chang’E-4 (CE-4) site referred to as norite/gabbro, based on findings of mineral abundance, indicate that they may be SPA impact melt components excavated by a surrounding impact crater. We find that CE-4 materials are dominated by plagioclase and pyroxene and feature little olivine, with 50 of 86 observations showing higher LCP than HCP in pyroxene. In view of the effects of space weathering, olivine content may be underestimated, with FeO and TiO2 content estimated using the maturity-corrected method. Estimates of chemical content are 7.42–18.82 wt% FeO and 1.48–2.1 wt% TiO2, with a low-medium Mg number (Mg # ~ 55). Olivine-rich materials are not present at the CE-4 landing site, based on the low-medium Mg #. Multi-origin materials at the CE-4 landing site were analyzed with regard to concentrations of FeO and TiO2 content, supporting our conclusion that the materials at CE-4 do not have a single source but rather are likely a mixture of SPA impact melt components excavated by surrounding impact crater and volcanic product ejecta.

Applications of AOTF Spectrometers in In Situ Lunar Measurements.

Spectrometers based on acousto-optic tunable filters (AOTFs) have several advantages, such as stable temperature adaptability, no moving parts, and wavelength selection through electrical modulation, compared with the traditional grating and Fourier transform spectrometers. Therefore, AOTF spectrometers can realize stable in situ measurement on the lunar surface under wide temperature ranges and low light environments. AOTF imaging spectrometers were first employed for in situ measurement of the lunar surface in the Chinese Chang’e project. The visible and near-infrared imaging spectrometer and the lunar mineralogical spectrometer have been successfully deployed on board the Chang’e-3/4 and Chang’e-5 missions. In this review, we investigate the performance indicators, structural design, selected AOTF performance parameters, data acquisition of the three lunar in situ spectral instruments used in the Chang’e missions. In addition, we also show the scientific achievement of lunar technology based on in situ spectral data.

Effect of Lunar Complex Illumination on In Situ Measurements Obtained Using Visible and Near-Infrared Imaging Spectrometer of Chang’E-4

In-situ measurements of the spectral information on the lunar surface are of significance to study the geological evolution of the Moon. China’s Chang’E-4 (CE-4) Yutu-2 rover has conducted several in-situ spectral explorations on the Moon. The visible and near-infrared imaging spectrometer (VNIS) onboard the rover has acquired a series of in-situ spectra of the regolith at the landing site. In general, the mineralogical research of the lunar surface relies on the accuracy of the in-situ data. However, the spectral measurements of the Yutu-2 rover may be affected by shadows and stray illumination. In this study, we analyzed 106 CE-4 VNIS spectra acquired in the first 24 lunar days of the mission and noted that six of these spectra were affected by the shadows of the rover. Therefore, a method was established to correct the effects of the rover shadow on the spectral measurements. After shadow correction, the FeO content in the affected area is corrected to 14.46 wt.%, which was similar to the result calculated in the normal regolith. Furthermore, according to the visible images, certain areas of the explored sites were noted to be unusually bright. Considering the reflectance, geometric information, and shining patterns of the multi-layer insulation (MLI), we examined the influence of the specular reflection of the MLI on the bright spot regionsd, and found that the five sets of data were likely not affected by the specular reflection of the MLI. The results indicated that the complex illumination considerably influences the in situ spectral data. This study can provide a basis to analyze the VNIS scientific data and help enhance the accuracy of interpretation of the composition at CE-4 landing sites.

Overview of the Chang’e-4 Mission: Opening the Frontier of Scientific Exploration of the Lunar Far Side

China’s Chang’e-4 (CE-4) mission is the first human lander/rover mission on the far side of the Moon. Its probe is composed of a lander, rover, and the Queqiao relay satellite. Queqiao was successfully launched on May 21, 2018, and entered the halo orbit of the L2 point on June 14, becoming the first satellite connecting the Earth and the Moon’s far side. The lander carrying Yutu-2 was successfully launched on December 8, 2018, and landed in the Von Karman crater (45.5° S, 177.6° E) at 10:26 (UTC+8) on January 3, 2019. The CE-4 probe carried nine science instruments. Four instruments are on the lander: a landing camera (LCAM), a terrain camera (TCAM), a low-frequency radio spectrometer (LFRS), and a lunar lander neutrons and dosimetry (LND) provided by Germany. Four instruments are on the rover: a panoramic camera (PCAM), a visible and near-infrared imaging spectrometer (VNIS), a lunar penetrating radar (LPR), and an advanced small analyzer for neutrals (ASAN) provided by Sweden. The instrument on the relay satellite is the Netherlands-China Low-Frequency Explorer (NCLE). The scientific objectives of the CE-4 mission include (1) performing low-frequency radio-astronomical observations; (2) investigating the geomorphology, mineral compositions and shallow subsurface structure of the landing and roving sites; and (3) detecting the Earth-Moon space environment at the lunar far side. As of February 1, 2020, CE-4 has completed 14 lunar days of scientific exploration after one year of operation. The components, fight, scientific objectives and investigation of CE-4 are introduced in this paper. We also describe the accessibility of the initial archived science data and their preliminary analysis results.

New Lunar Samples Returned by Chang’e-5: Opportunities for New Discoveries and International Collaboration

On December 16th, 2020 at 17:59 UTC, the sample capsule of Chang’e-5 successfully landed at Dorbod Banner, Inner Mongolia, China. It is a milestone for the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program (CLEP), which has achieved the goals of its first three phases: orbiting, landing, and sample return. China becomes the third country to return samples from the Moon after the United States and the Soviet Union. Forty-four years since the Luna 24 mission in 1976, new lunar samples have been returned to Earth. Chang’e-5 was launched from Wenchang Satellite Launch Center, Hainan Island, on November 23rd, 2020 at 20:30 UTC and landed on the Moon in a region known as Oceanus Procellarum (Figure 1) on December 1st, 2020. After 19 hours of lunar surface activities, sample collection and packaging were completed on December 2nd. Then, the ascent vehicle took off with the samples from atop the lander on December 3rd to rendezvous with the orbiting spacecraft (returner vehicle). The sample capsule reentered the Earth's atmosphere on December 16th, 2020. Chang’e-5 collected the lunar samples in two ways: soil core drilling, and soil and rock fragment scooping (Figure 1). The lander was equipped with a panoramic camera, a landing camera, a visible and near-infrared imaging spectrometer, and a ground-penetrating radar. These payloads obtained in situ reflection spectra of the surface materials, and the topography and shallow structure of the landing site, providing vital geological context for the returned samples. The samples returned from the Moon are invaluable for planetary sciences. For example, the discovery of pure anorthosite fragments in the Apollo samples revealed a global magma ocean in the Moon's early history.3Wood J.A. Dickey Jr., J.S. Marvin U.B. Powell B.N. Lunar anorthosites.Science. 1970; 167: 602-604Crossref PubMed Scopus (93) Google Scholar When calibrated using the absolute ages of the returned samples, the impact craters on the Moon provide an approximate relative chronology for other planetary surfaces in the inner solar system.4Stöffler D. Ryder G. Ivanov B.A. et al.Cratering history and lunar chronology.Rev. Mineral. Geochem. 2006; 60: 519-596Crossref Scopus (267) Google Scholar The compositional relationship between the Earth and the Moon offers constraints on various lunar formation hypotheses.5Canup R.M. Dynamics of lunar formation.Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 2004; 42: 441-475Crossref Scopus (198) Google Scholar The landing site of Chang’e−5 is located far from the six Apollo and three Luna sampling sites. The crater counting method indicates that the lava flows at the Chang’e-5 landing site are much younger than the basalts collected by the Apollo and Luna missions. Furthermore, the remote sensing data show that these younger lavas are enriched in K, REE (rare earth elements), and P components (so-called KREEP, the proposed last dregs of the Lunar Magma Ocean) with high abundances of radiogenic elements, such as K, U, and Th (Figure 1). Therefore, these new lunar samples will allow a better understanding of the formation and evolution of the Moon. For example, calibration with the isotope chronological data can make the crater counting method more accurate for younger geological events at the Moon and the rest of the inner solar system. These young basalt rocks can reveal the late history of lunar volcanism and the geochemical features of the lunar mantle reservoir. The drill core of lunar soil will benefit the understanding of the effects and mechanisms of space weathering on airless bodies and the secular evolution of the solar wind. The CLEP consists of five subsystems: the spacecraft system, the rocket system, the launch site system, the tracking and control system, and the ground application system. The ground application system is responsible for curating the lunar samples. The China National Space Administration (CNSA) established a lunar sample management committee to evaluate the requests for the samples. To promote collaboration and interaction between Chinese and European scientists in the area of lunar science, CNSA and the European Space Agency (ESA) co-organized four workshops, in-person in Beijing (2017), Amsterdam (2018), and Zhuhai (2019), and an online one (2020) due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Both sides have established the CNSA-ESA joint research team to analyze lunar samples and participate in lunar exploration. Chang’e-5 is the first sample return mission of the long-planned sequence of space exploration by China. Its technology and experience will be utilized for future sample return missions. Chang’e-6 will attempt to return samples from the Moon's south pole region. Sample return missions to Mars and an asteroid as the quasi-satellite of the Earth are also planned for this decade. As the world's second-largest economy, China looks forward to contributing to human deep space exploration. Chinese scientists look forward to collaborating with scientists worldwide to contribute to planetary sciences.

Photometric Normalization of Chang’e-4 Visible and Near-Infrared Imaging Spectrometer Datasets: A Combined Study of In-Situ and Laboratory Spectral Measurements

Until 29 May 2020, the Visible and Near-Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (VNIS) onboard the Yutu-2 Rover of the Chang’e-4 (CE-4) has acquired 96 high-resolution surface in-situ imaging spectra. These spectra were acquired under different illumination conditions, thus photometric normalization should be conducted to correct the introduced albedo differences before deriving the quantitative mineralogy for accurate geologic interpretations. In this study, a Lommel–Seeliger (LS) model and Hapke radiative transfer (Hapke) model were used and empirical phase functions of the LS model were derived. The values of these derived phase functions exhibit declining trends with the increase in phase angles and the opposition effect and phase reddening effect were observed. Then, we discovered from in-situ and laboratory measurements that the shadows caused by surface roughness have significant impacts on reflectance spectra and proper corrections were introduced. The validations of different phase functions showed that the maximum discrepancy at 1500 nm of spectra corrected by the LS model was less (~3.7%) than that by the Hapke model (~7.4%). This is the first time that empirical phase functions have been derived for a wavelength from 450 to 2395 nm using in-situ visible and near-infrared spectral datasets. Generally, photometrically normalized spectra exhibit smaller spectral slopes, lower FeO contents and larger optical maturity parameter (OMAT) than spectra without correction. In addition, the band centers of the 1 and 2 μm absorption features of spectra after photometric normalization exhibit a more concentrated distribution, indicating the compositional homogeneity of soils at the CE-4 landing site.

IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY OF VISIBLE AND NEAR-INFRARED IMAGING SPECTROMETER ON YUTU-2 ROVER BASED ON VISION MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY

Abstract. The Chang'e-4 successfully landed on the far side of the moon in January 2019. By the 12th lunar day, its Yutu-2 rover had achieved a breakthrough travel distance of greater than 300 m. A visible and near-infrared imaging spectrometer (VNIS), consisting of a visible and near-infrared (VNIR) imaging spectrometer and a shortwave infrared (SWIR) spectrometer was used for detecting mineralogical compositions of lunar-surface materials. Because VNIS is fixed on the front of the rover, and the field-of-view (FOV) of VNIR and SWIR are small (8.5° and 3.6° respectively), approaching and accurately pointing at the specific science target depend completely on the precise control of the moving rover.In this paper, a successful method of VNIS target detection based on vision measurement is proposed. First, the accurate position of the target is calculated via navigation camera imaging. Then, the moving path is planned by considering the terrain environment, illumination, communication condition, and other constraints. After the rover moves to the designed position, the binocular imaging of the hazard-avoidance cameras are activated, the detection direction and forward distance are calculated according to the images, and the FOV trajectory of the VINS is predicted while moving. Finally, by choosing the required moving control parameters, the imaging field of the VINS accurately cover the detected targets visually.These methods have been verified many times, and the results show that they are effective and feasible. The research results based on the VNIS data have successfully revealed the material composition on the far side of the moon and have deepened human understanding of its formation and evolution.

Estimation of Noise in the In Situ Hyperspectral Data Acquired by Chang’E-4 and Its Effects on Spectral Analysis of Regolith

The Chang’E-4 (CE-4) spacecraft landed successfully on the far side of the Moon on 3 January 2019, and the rover Yutu-2 has explored the lunar surface since then. The visible and near-infrared imaging spectrometer (VNIS) onboard the rover has acquired numerous spectra, providing unprecedented insight into the composition of the lunar surface. However, the noise in these spectral data and its effects on spectral interpretation are not yet assessed. Here we analyzed repeated measurements over the same area at the lunar surface to estimate the signal–noise ratio (SNR) of the VNIS spectra. Using the results, we assessed the effects of noise on the estimation of band centers, band depths, FeO content, optical maturity (OMAT), mineral abundances, and submicroscopic metallic iron (SMFe). The data observed at solar altitudes <20° exhibit low SNR (25 dB), whereas the data acquired at 20°–35° exhibit higher SNR (35–37 dB). We found differences in band centers due to noise to be ~6.2 and up to 28.6 nm for 1 and 2 μm absorption, respectively. We also found that mineral abundances derived using the Hapke model are affected by noise, with maximum standard deviations of 6.3%, 2.4%, and 7.0% for plagioclase, pyroxene, and olivine, respectively. Our results suggest that noise has significant impacts on the CE-4 spectra, which should be considered in the spectral analysis and geologic interpretation of lunar exploration data.

Mineralogy of Chang’e-4 landing site: preliminary results of visible and near-infrared imaging spectrometer

The exploration of mafic anomaly in South Pole-Aitken (SPA, the largest confirmed) basin on the Moon provides important insights into lunar interior. The landing of Chang’e-4 (CE-4) and deployment of Yutu-2 rover on the discontinuous ejecta from Finsen crater enabled in-situ measurements of the unusual mineralogy in the central portion of SPA basin with visible and near-infrared imaging spectrometer (VNIS). Here we present detailed processing procedures based on the level 2B data of CE-4 VNIS and preliminary mineralogical results at the exploration area of Yutu-2 rover. A systematic processing pipeline is developed to derive credible reflectance spectra, based on which several spectral and mineral indices are calculated to constrain the mafic mineralogy. The mafic components in the soils and boulder around CE-4 landing site are concluded as clinopyroxene-bearing with intermediate composition and probably dominated by pigeonite although the possibility of mixing orthopyroxen (OPX) and calcic clinopyroxene (CPX) also exists. These mineralogical results are more consistent with a petrogenesis that the CE-4 regolith and rock fragment are derived from rapid-cooling magmatic systems and we interpret that the materials at the CE-4 landing site ejected from Finsen crater are probably recrystallized from impact melt settings.