Navigable Waterways Research Articles

The Productivity of US States since 1880

This study uses state-level variation in labor productivity levels at twenty-year intervals between 1880 and 1980 to examine the relative importance of institutional and geographical influences in explaining observed and persistent differences in standards of living over time and across regions. Focusing on fundamental rather than proximate influences, we find that both institutional characteristics and some physical geography characteristics account for a high proportion of the differences in state productivity levels: states with navigable waterways, a large minerals endowment, and no slaves in 1860, on average, had higher labor productivity levels throughout the sample period. However, we find little support for two other influences that have previously received attention—climate and latitude.

Toward a community coastal sediment transport modeling system: The second workshop

Models for transport and the long‐term fate of particles in coastal waters are essential for a variety of applications related to commerce, defense, public health, and the quality of the marine environment. Examples include: analysis of waste disposal and transport and the fate of contaminated materials; evaluation of burial rates for naval mines or archaeological artifacts; prediction of water‐column optical properties; analysis of transport and the fate of biological particles; prediction of coastal flooding and coastal erosion; evaluation of impacts of sea‐level or wave‐climate changes and coastal development; planning for construction and maintenance of navigable waterways; evaluation of habitat for commercial fisheries; evaluation of impacts of natural or anthropogenic changes in coastal conditions on recreational activities; and design of intakes and outfalls for sewage treatment, cooling systems, and desalination plants.

Quality of dredged material in the river Seine basin (France). II. Micropollutants

Dredging rivers is needed to ensure safe navigable waters, rivers and waterways. To anticipate the management of dredged materials in the case of the river Seine basin, the quality of the sediments in the river is checked every 3 years before dredging operations. The river Seine Basin is heavily submitted to pollution pressure from nearby industrial activities and urban expansion of Paris and its region. Here, the micropollutant content of the sediment sampled in 1996, 1999 and 2000 before dredging is discussed compared to regulatory standards. The results indicate that most of the sediment samples from the river Seine basin are lightly to moderately contaminated with organic and inorganic micropollutants (heavy metals, PAH, PCB), which makes the management after dredging easier. This pollution is strongly correlated with the organic matter content and to the fine fraction (<50 μm) of the sediment. These results can lead to other management options than the ones already used in the river Seine basin: (1) dumping of lightly to moderately polluted sediments in quarries; and (2) physical treatment (sieving, hydrocycloning) of contaminated sediments issued from ‘hot spots’.

Federal Regulation of Wetlands in Aftermath of Supreme Court’s Decision in SWANCC v. United States

Under the commerce clause, Congress has the power to regulate any activity that has a ‘‘substantial effect’’ on interstate commerce. Congress may, however, choose not to exercise the full extent of its regulatory power. When Congress passed the Clean Water Act, it delegated to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ~Corps! and the Environmental Protection Agency ~EPA! the authority to regulate ‘‘waters of the United States.’’ In deciding what wetlands to regulate, the Corps and the EPA were thus required to consider what scope of regulatory authority Congress intended to confer when it used the term ‘‘waters of the United States.’’ Did Congress intend regulation only of navigable waterways on which commerce was conducted? Did Congress intend regulation of wetlands and watercourses that are adjacent to navigable waterways? What about isolated wetlands that are not even adjacent to navigable waterways? Ultimately, the Corps concluded that Congress intended the Corps to regulate the nations’ waters to the full extent allowed under the Commerce Clause, i.e. to any waters or wetlands that had a substantial effect on interstate commerce. Thus, prior to SWANCC v. United States, the Corps claimed that ‘‘waters of the United States’’ included not only navigable waterways but also ‘‘isolated wetlands’’ which were not attached or adjacent to ‘‘navigable’’ waterways. The Corps reasoned that because migratory birds have economic impacts in multiple states and internationally, and because migratory birds use isolated wetlands, what happened on isolated wetlands affected interstate commerce. The rule promulgated by the Corps to extend jurisdiction over these isolated wetlands became known as the migratory bird rule. The Court in SWANCC invalidated this migratory bird rule, holding that Congress did not intend to give the Corps authority to regulate isolated wetlands when it used the term ‘‘waters of the United States.’’ The Court did not reach what it described as a close constitutional question about whether Congress ~and by delegation the Corps! had power under the Commerce Clause to regulate isolated wetlands. In other words, the Court decided that Congress may or may not have been able to give the agency power to regulate isolated wetlands but that it did not do so in the Clean Water Act. The Corps, therefore, was acting beyond its statutory authority in passing the migratory bird rule. This decision has been characterized as ‘‘the end of life as we know it’’ and the ‘‘beginning of the end’’ for the environmental movement. The truth seems less extreme.

Hyperspectral imaging: a useful technology for transportation analysis

We address hyperspectral imaging (HSI) technology and its attendant key issue of spectral libraries to enable the exploitation of hyperspectral images for transportation applications. Five key applications are reviewed here: detection/identification of submerged aquatic vegetae tion in navigable waterways, detection/tracking of oil spills, extracting/ assessing road characteristics, mapping impervious surfaces, and the detection/identification of vehicles. Central to all these applications is the need for a comprehensive spectral library in which various reflective spectra are correlated with physical surfaces and environments encountered in transportation. Much of this critical work is being funded by the Department of Transportation through four university consortia, each specializing in one of the key transportation areas of: transportation flows; infrastructure; environmental assessment; and safety, hazards, and disaster assessment for transportation lifelines.

Two Centuries of Central Water Management in the Netherlands

For two centuries the Rijkswaterstaat has been responsible for public works in the Netherlands. Founded in 1798, this national government agency, which now numbers twelve thousand employees, has left its mark on the country. The river landscape has been completely re-created. Deep-sea inlets and large inland saltwater lakes such as the Zuider Zee have been cut off from the sea, reducing the country's coastline by about 2,800 kilometers (from 3,400 to 650). More than 350,000 hectares of land have been reclaimed. The Rijkswaterstaat has also been involved in infrastructure development. At present there are in the Netherlands 3,000 kilometers of railway lines, around 4,000 kilometers of navigable waterways, 18,000 kilo meters of cycle paths, and more than 100,000 kilometers of asphalt roads. Numerous structural works, as they are known in civil engineering parl ance, dominate the Dutch landscape: weirs, locks, storm surge barriers, bridges, viaducts, cloverleafs, tunnels, overpasses, and the like. Such struc tures have taken the place of other features?church spires, windmills, pol lard willows, poplars?that once dotted the horizon. The Rijkswaterstaat cannot claim full credit or responsibility for all these structures. Many other actors influence public works and infrastruc ture. Water boards, for instance, are responsible for local water control and for maintaining water quality. The Rijkswaterstaat operates in a complex environment. It has to deal with the various administrative bodies (the state, provinces, municipalities, and water boards) responsible for similar types of public works and infrastructure. It inhabits an ambiguous area between government and private enterprise, since many tasks can be car ried out by private companies. Furthermore, the agency sees itself as a civil service organization confronted by numerous political parties and social

Canal construction destroys the barrier between major European invasion lineages of the zebra mussel.

Since the mid-1980s the zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha, Pallas 1771, has become the protagonist of a spectacular freshwater invasion in North America due to its large economic and biological impact. Several genetic studies on American populations have failed to detect any large-scale geographical patterns. In western Europe, where D. polymorpha has been a classical invader from the Pontocaspian since the early 19th century, the situation is strikingly different. Here, we show with genetic markers that two major western European invasion lineages with lowered genetic variability within and among populations can be discriminated. These two invasion lineages correspond with two separate navigable waterways to western Europe. We found a rapid and asymmetrical genetic interchange of the two invasion lines after the construction of the Main-Danube canal in 1992, which interconnected the two waterways across the main watershed.

The U.S. Supreme Court Limits Federal Regulation of Wetlands: Implications of the SWANCC Decision

In January, 2001, the U.S. Supreme Court limited federal authority to regulate isolated wetlands that serve as habitat for migratory birds or endangered species. The Court determined that the Clean Water Act's protection of wetlands only extends to waters, their tributaries, and wetlands adjacent to each. As with many of the Court's 5-4 decisions, the ruling is enigmatic. It may produce a drastic reduction in federal regulation of vernal pools, desert springs, interior drainage streams, and other wetlands of importance in California. It may also mean the end of federal regulation of water pollution in these water bodies. Or, the ruling could have a practical effect rather less than that. Clearly, the Supreme Court believes that regulation of wetlands beyond navigable waterways is the province of state and local governments. As of yet, the Army Corps of Engineers has not issued guidance on how that agency will interpret the SWANCC decision. The SWANCC decision presents California with the opportunity to assess the ecological and economic benefits of the state's remaining isolated wetlands, the costs of protecting them, and to determine whether the state should take the lead in their regulation. This paper reviews federal regulation of wetlands and the Supreme Court's decision. It attempts to identify the wetlands in California that now lie outside of federal regulation, and reviews existing state laws and regulatory programs that might cover the affected wetlands. It concludes with several policy options, ranging from minor fixes to plug the gap in federal-state regulation to creating a statewide wetlands conservancy.

Feasibility of a Container-on-Barge Network Along the Texas Gulf Coast

Freight volumes in Texas and throughout the world have been increasing as a result of growing national economies and international trade. The use of intermodal containers to transport this freight presents the opportunity for a more efficient transportation system. Using barges to carry containers could diminish roadway congestion, reduce fuel consumption and emissions, increase shipper options, and expand the reach of smaller ports. Although a number of benefits could be realized from container-on-barge (COB) service, the feasibility of a COB network along the Texas Gulf Coast remains less clear. At present, the likelihood of a COB network is slight because the hindrances are daunting: the lack of infrastructure and equipment; inadequate distribution of population along the Texas Gulf Coast; only a few navigable inland waterways, with none serving a major population center outside Houston; transport times that are incompatible with many manufacturers’ needs; a history of failed attempts for COB companies; intense competition from railways; unclear costs for serving ports without container infrastructure; and a limited number of participants due to restrictions of the Jones Act. Opportunities may exist, however, for a COB operation to exploit the substantial amount of industrial activity along the Texas Gulf Coast and the inefficiencies in the existing supply chain. Growing U.S. trade with Mexico might also offer some possibilities for COB services, but the recent trend has been toward Texas receiving a diminishing share of the value and weight of containerized commodities being moved from Mexico.

Recovery of dredged material for beneficial use: the future role of physical separation processes

Sediments dredged from navigational waterways have historically been disposed in confined disposal facilities (CDFs) or in open water. When sediments are contaminated, open water disposal is typically not an alternative, and sediments are placed in CDFs. Many CDFs are nearing capacity, and siting and constructing new facilities is both difficult and expensive. In many cases, CDFs contain both clean and contaminated dredged material. Removal of materials suitable for beneficial use (BU) is one alternative under consideration to extend the life of existing CDFs, as is separation of recoverable materials at the time of disposal. Several technologies for recovery of clean materials or treatment of contaminated materials for beneficial use are presently under evaluation. Physical separation technologies have been demonstrated to have potential in reducing the volume of sediment that must be managed with confined disposal, but there are several technical issues that remain to be addressed. Determination of beneficial use specifications, physical and chemical characterization of dredged material, overall site characterization, selection of suitable unit operations, management of liquid and solid residuals, and cost/benefit analysis, are all important aspects to successful implementation of separation processes. Several of these elements are presently being evaluated in research conducted by the US Army Corps of Engineers, at the ERDC Waterways Experiment Station (WES).

Conservation of fish species diversity in navigable waterways

Nineteen waterways in the German lowlands were surveyed between 1992 and 1997 to evaluate their fishes conservation capacity. From 277 sites a total of 84 821 fish of 31 species was collected. Number of species in various waterways ranged from 6 to 26 with a mean± standard deviation of 15.4±5.4. Mean species diversity was H′=1.61±0.29 (range 1.02–2.20), and corresponding evenness 0.61±0.09 (0.51–0.76). Fish communities of waterways were dominated by perch and roach, both contributing in mean 68.5±12.5% to the total catch. The mean relative abundance of threatened fish listed in “Red Data Books” of Germany or Europe was 7.83±4.82%. Percentage of artificial shoreline structures like riprap or sheet pile wall was inversely correlated to species number, species diversity and abundance of intolerant species. This study was a first approach to estimate the percentage of habitat restoration required to increase species diversity. Even the restoration of one-fifth of the river banks, the restoration of natural shoreline structures from close 0 to 20% of the bankline should result in substantial improvement of fish diversity, and significantly contribute to species conservation and persistence of viable populations of threatened fishes in waterways. In regard to such relatively low restoration effort, biodiversity conservation in waterways is compatible with long-term resource use, navigation and human needs. Even though heavily modified, waterways are also recommended for conservation issues by their large area covered as well as their substantial number of fish species.

A Strategy and Methodology for Defensibly Correlating Spilled Oil to Source Candidates

The source of crude oils and petroleum products released into navigable waterways and shipping lanes is not always known. Thus, the defensible identification of spilled crude oils and petroleum products and their correlation to suspected sources is a critical part of many oil spill assessments. Quantitative “fingerprinting” analysis, when evaluated using straightforward statistical and numerical analyses, provides a defensible means to differentiate among qualitatively similar oils and provides the best assessment of the source(s) for spilled oils. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) and petroleum biomarker concentration data are a particularly useful quantitative measure that can benefit most oil spill investigations. In this paper the strategy and methodology for correlation analysis that relies upon quantitative gas chromatography/mass spectrometry operated in the selected ion monitoring mode (GC/MS-SIM) is demonstrated in a case study involving 66 candidate sources for a heavy fuel oil spill of unknown origin. The strategy includes identification of 19 chemical indices (out of 45 evaluated) based upon PAH's and biomarkers that were (1) independent of weathering; and (2) precisely measured, both of which are determined by statistical analysis of the data. The 19 chemical indices meeting these criteria are subsequently analysed using principal component analysis (PCA), which helps to determine defensibly the “prime suspects” for the oil spill under investigation. The strategy and methodology described, which combines statistical and numerical analysis of quantitative chemical data, can be adapted and applied to other environmental forensic investigations with the objective of correlating any form of contamination to its suspected sources.

A Strategy and Methodology for Defensibly Correlating Spilled Oil to Source Candidates

The source of crude oils and petroleum products released into navigable waterways and shipping lanes is not always known. Thus, the defensible identification of spilled crude oils and petroleum products and their correlation to suspected sources is a critical part of many oil spill assessments. Quantitative "fingerprinting" analysis, when evaluated using straightforward statistical and numerical analyses, provides a defensible means to differentiate among qualitatively similar oils and provides the best assessment of the source(s) for spilled oils. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) and petroleum biomarker concentration data are a particularly useful quantitative measure that can benefit most oil spill investigations. In this paper the strategy and methodology for correlation analysis that relies upon quantitative gas chromatography/mass spectrometry operated in the selected ion monitoring mode (GC/MS-SIM) is demonstrated in a case study involving 66 candidate sources for a heavy fuel oil spill of unknown origin. The strategy includes identification of 19 chemical indices (out of 45 evaluated) based upon PAH's and biomarkers that were (1) independent of weathering; and (2) precisely measured, both of which are determined by statistical analysis of the data. The 19 chemical indices meeting these criteria are subsequently analysed using principal component analysis (PCA), which helps to determine defensibly the "prime suspects" for the oil spill under investigation. The strategy and methodology described, which combines statistical and numerical analysis of quantitative chemical data, can be adapted and applied to other environmental forensic investigations with the objective of correlating any form of contamination to its suspected sources.

Historical and human dimensions of climate variability and water resource constraint in the Senegal River Valley

This paper provides a case study from the northern Senegal wetlands documenting trends in inter-annual and seasonal climate variability during the past century as well as human vul- nerability and adaptation to anomalous climate events. A secular decline in precipitation during the past 3 decades has resulted in the construction of 2 dams on the Senegal River in the 1980s and an interstate river basin development strategy to develop hydroelectricity, irrigation farming, and a navigable waterway. Current agro-ecological production systems dependent on a seasonal riparian flood cycle could be curtailed in trying to meet these development objectives. Two hydrological time flow series illustrating the importance of inter-annual and seasonal climate variability for the region are used to weigh the costs and benefits of competing water use scenarios for end users.

Health monitoring of composite plastic waterworks lock gates usingin-fibre Bragg grating sensors

A new concept of fibre-reinforced composite layered material lockgates has been developed to be used on navigable waterways. To contribute tothe validation of the prototype, a permanent optical fibre sensornon-destructive evaluation system was installed. Qualification measurementsusing both electrical strain gauges and in-fibre Bragg gratings (FBGs)demonstrate usability and advantages of FBG sensors as a lifecycle healthmonitoring system.

Redefining the Legal I Status of the Taiwan Strait

AbstractThe Taiwan Strait is a critical corridor connecting the East China Sea to the South China Sea. The divided status of China as a result of the civil war in 1949 has made the situation in the Taiwan Strait complicated and uncertain. After the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOS), the legal status of the Taiwan Strait has been changed from a strait embodying high seas waters to a strait only with waters under national jurisdiction of China. The waters within the Strait may be divided into several sea zones in accordance with the LOS Convention, i.e., the internal waters, territorial sea and EEZ/continental shelf. Due to the difference among the sea zones, the navigational waterways within the Taiwan Strait are subject to different legal rules. Thus cross-Strait co-operation between mainland China and Taiwan is necessary to manage the Taiwan Strait and human activities therein.

Concessions and road and rail transport optimization

The Latin American railways faced serious competition from another means of land transport for the first time in the 1930s, and one of the results of this was a significant loss of income from the transport of products of relatively high unit value. This income had covered their fixed costs in terms of management and infrastructure. The financial difficulties of the railway companies drove them to seek aid from the State sector, but in subsequent decades governments gradually lost interest in them because of their financial deficits and dwindling importance in the national economy. The services with the least volumes of freight and passengers were steadily eliminated, and rail services had already become quite sparse when governments decided to return the railways to the private sector as from the late 1970s. The growing tendency of railways to devote themselves to the transport of bulk cargo between a limited number of points means that in corridors without navigable waterways almost the only competition comes from heavy trucks. The subsidies for the transport of goods by such trucks have been reduced, but not impeded, by the granting of highway management concessions. Within a few years it will be technologically feasible to charge heavy trucks tolls that really reflect both the external costs of their operation and those deriving from the wear and tear on the infrastructure. In the meantime, rail and road transport could be placed on an equal footing in terms of competition by compensatory subsidies for the former. This would channel each type of traffic towards the means of transport that could move it at lowest cost. In order for the benefits to be received by the community in general rather than by the private-sector concessionaires of railways and highways, however, the policy on compensatory subsidies should be laid down before the award of the concessions.

Maintaining Ecosystem Integrity Using Geographic-Specific Tactical Response Plans

ABSTRACT There were approximately 7,900 oil spills reported to the United States Coast Guard (USCG) totaling 410,000 gallons in the navigable waterways of the United States in 1997. The USCG acts as the Federal On-Scene Coordinator for coastal oil spills and is responsible for ensuring an environmental and economic balanced oil clean up operation. The majority of oil spill responses are reactive in nature and driven by the need to remove the oil from the environment expeditiously in concurrence with public expectations. In a reactive response the primary focus is on the removal of oil with less emphasis on the ecosystem integrity of an area due to time constraints. A proactive response is an environmentally driven response, which is referred to as an “environmental response.” An environmental response is accomplished utilizing Geographic-Specific Tactical Response Plans (GSTRPs) to select response options based on area specific environmental concerns. Essential to the effective use of this system is the identification and prioritization of environmentally sensitive areas and the designation of divisions prior to an oil spill. The GSTRPs compile information in the Area Contingency Plan (ACP) into a tactical field resource document. The required information in the ACPs have turned them into a cumulative response database. The GSTRPs balance the environment and maritime commerce by providing a field tool, which identifies area specific biological, ecological, physical, chemical, archaeo-cultural, and socio-economic concerns. The information in these plans allows minimal oversight and decreases the time spent on decision making during the first 24 hours of a response. This tool is reality-based for required resources, protection strategies, and area size. It was developed specifically for use in the Incident Command System and is effectively an Incident Action Plan for the first crucial hours of oil spill response operations.

Riparian Rights and Manufacturing in Antebellum South Carolina: William Gregg and the Origins of the "Industrial Mind"

AT ITS 1853 SESSION, THE SOUTH CAROLINA GENERAL ASSEMBLY PASSED An Act to Declare a Certain Description of Streams Navigable, and for Purposes. This apparently innocuous statute clarified the legal definition of a navigable waterway in the state. Furthermore, it defined the obligations of mill owners on such a stream, requiring them to permit free passage of lumber or timber through their dams. Owners of dams erected prior to a declaration of navigability were required to provide access but were permitted to collect compensation from persons using the passage, at an amount agreed to by the parties involved. However, one of the Other Purposes of the act was a notable exemption: Provided, That nothing herein contained shall be construed to extend to the navigation of Horse Creek, above a point known as Richardson's Shoals, on said Creek. This concession directly benefited only a pair of mills on Horse Creek: the cotton factories at Graniteville and Vaucluse in Edgefield District. In fact, Graniteville Manufacturing Company's president and founder, the southern industrialist William Gregg, was in the forefront of the effort to pass the act and its concomitant exemption. But Gregg's victory was by no means a foregone conclusion. Not only did he have to fend off several counter-petitions from upstream sawmill owners, but Gregg also had to convince the General Assembly to overturn more than a half century of legal precedent and riparian custom regarding the use of Horse Creek as a public highway and common resource. His success marked a subtle but significant transformation of the state's political economy, provoking a fundamental shift in favor of large-scale manufacturing at

海洋構造物付近の航行水路の安全性( IAIN '97)

海洋構造物付近の航行水路の安全性( IAIN '97)